Archives
(PRELIMS Focus)
Subject: Environment – Wildlife Protection; Red Sand Boa; Schedule I; DRI Seizure; Illegal Wildlife Trade.
Why in News?
- Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI), Hyderabad zonal unit, recovered two live Indian Red Sand Boa snakes during an undercover decoy operation in Warangal, Telangana on May 17, 2026
About Red Sand Boa (Indian Sand Boa)
Basic Details
- Scientific Name: Eryx johnii
- Common Names: Indian Sand Boa, Red Sand Boa, “Double-headed snake” (tail is almost as thick as body, giving appearance of two heads)
- Type: Non-venomous snake
- Average Length: Approximately 75 cm
- IUCN Red List: Near Threatened
Appearance
- Primarily reddish-brown and thick-set
- Tail is almost as thick as the body – gives the reptile the appearance of being “double-headed”
- This unique feature makes it highly sought after in illegal wildlife trade (superstitions, exotic pet market)
Behaviour
- Nocturnal (active at night)
- Fossorial (spends majority of time underground)
- Ovoviviparous (gives birth to live young – eggs develop inside mother’s body)
Habitat and Distribution
Geographic Range
- Endemic to Iran, Pakistan, and India
Habitat Preference
- Prefers dry, sandy, and loose soil environments that support fossorial (burrowing) lifestyle
- Found in arid and semi-arid regions
Key Terms for Prelims
- Red Sand Boa: Eryx johnii – non-venomous, fossorial snake; Near Threatened (IUCN); Schedule I (WPA 1972)
- Double-headed snake: Misnomer for Red Sand Boa (tail resembles head)
- Fossorial: Adapted for burrowing (living underground)
- Ovoviviparous: Eggs develop inside mother’s body; young are born live
- Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI): Intelligence arm of CBIC (Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs); under Ministry of Finance
- Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I – highest protection
- Undercover decoy operation: Investigative technique where officials pose as buyers to catch wildlife smugglers
Possible Prelims MCQs
Q1. The Red Sand Boa (Eryx johnii) is listed under which Schedule of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972?
- Schedule I
Q2. What is the IUCN conservation status of the Red Sand Boa?
- Near Threatened
Q3. The Red Sand Boa is also known as:
- Double-headed snake
Source/Reference:
Subject: Geography – Scandinavia; International Relations – India-Norway Bilateral Ties; Green Strategic Partnership; Arctic Council; EFTA; IPOI.
Why in News?
- Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited Oslo, Norway (May 18-19, 2026) as part of his five-nation European tour (UAE → Netherlands → Sweden → Norway → Italy)
- India and Norway elevated bilateral relations to a “Green Strategic Partnership”
- PM Modi was awarded the Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit – Norway’s highest civilian honour
About Norway
- Location: Northwestern Europe; occupies western portion of Scandinavian Peninsula
- Capital: Oslo
- Bordering Countries: Sweden (east), Finland (northeast), Russia (east – small border)
- Water Bodies: North Sea (southwest), Norwegian Sea (west), Barents Sea (north)
- Official Language: Norwegian
- Currency: Norwegian Krone (NOK)
- Government: Constitutional monarchy with parliamentary system
Geographical Features
- Terrain: Rugged coastline with deep fjords (UNESCO-listed Geirangerfjord and Nærøyfjord); mountainous interior
- Highest Point: Galdhøpiggen – 2,469 metres
- Key Islands: Svalbard Archipelago (Arctic Ocean) – location of India’s Himadri research station
- Notable Feature: Northern Lights (Aurora Borealis) visible in Arctic regions
India-Norway Relations: Key Developments (May 2026)
Bilateral Trade and Economic Partnership
- Trade target: Double current trade value by 2030
- TEPA (Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement) – between India and EFTA (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland) already in force
- Investment target: USD 100 billion from EFTA countries; 1 million direct jobs in India
Green Strategic Partnership
- Elevation of bilateral relationship focused on :
- Climate action and energy transition
- Blue economy and ocean governance
- Circular economy and sustainable lifestyles (Mission LiFE)
- Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS)
- Offshore wind and green shipping
Norway Joins Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)
- IPOI launched by India at East Asia Summit in 2019
- Builds on SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) initiative
Arctic and Polar Cooperation
- India has Observer status in Arctic Council (since 2013)
- India’s Himadri research station at Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard (established July 2008)
- Cooperation in polar research, climate studies, and environmental issues
Space Cooperation
- ISRO uses Norway’s Svalbard Ground Station for satellite data reception
- Framework agreement between ISRO and Norwegian Space Agency
Multilateral Support
- Norway reiterated support for India’s permanent membership in a reformed UN Security Council
- Norway welcomed India’s application to Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)
EFTA: European Free Trade Association
- Members: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland
- Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland
- TEPA with India: Signed March 2024; entered into force 2025
- Key Commitments: USD 100 billion investment in India over 15 years; 1 million jobs
Arctic Council
- Established: 1996 (Ottawa Declaration)
- Members (8): Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, USA
- Observer Status: India, China, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Germany, France, UK, etc.
- Purpose: Forum for cooperation on Arctic issues (sustainable development, environmental protection)
- India’s Station: Himadri in Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard (operational since 2008)
Key Terms for Prelims
- Green Strategic Partnership: Elevated bilateral framework focusing on climate, green energy, circular economy (India-Norway, May 2026)
- EFTA: European Free Trade Association – 4 members (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland)
- TEPA: Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement – India-EFTA
- IPOI: Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative – India-led maritime framework (launched 2019)
- SAGAR: Security and Growth for All in the Region – India’s maritime vision (PM Modi, 2015)
- Arctic Council: Intergovernmental forum for Arctic states (India is Observer)
- Himadri: India’s Arctic research station in Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard, Norway
- Svalbard Ground Station: Norwegian station used by ISRO for satellite data reception
- Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit: Norway’s highest civilian honour (conferred on PM Modi, May 2026)
- Norwegian Sovereign Wealth Fund (Government Pension Fund Global): World’s largest sovereign wealth fund (from oil revenues)
Possible Prelims MCQs
Q1: Norway shares its eastern border with which two countries?
- Finland and Russia
Q2: India’s Arctic research station ‘Himadri’ is located in which Norwegian archipelago?
- Svalbard
Q3: The Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) is between India and which group of countries?
- European Free Trade Association (EFTA)
Q4: Which maritime initiative was launched by India at the East Asia Summit in 2019?
- Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)
Q5: India has Observer status in which intergovernmental forum for Arctic states?
- Arctic Council
Q8: India-Norway bilateral relations were elevated to which partnership during PM Modi’s May 2026 visit?
- Green Strategic Partnership
Source/Reference:
https://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/41184/IndiaNorway+Joint+Statement+May+18+2026
Subject: Polity – Citizenship; Social Justice – Marginalized Communities; Modern History – Partition Migration; West Bengal Politics.
Why in News?
- Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) notified an amendment to Citizenship Rules on May 18, 2026, requiring CAA applicants to declare passport status and surrender foreign passports
- Most Matuas who migrated from Bangladesh lack sufficient documents to apply for citizenship under CAA
About Matua Community
Origin and Founder
- Marginalized Hindu sect with roots in the 19th century (1860s)
- Founded by Harichand Thakur in present-day Bangladesh
- Movement arose as a response to deep-seated caste discrimination within Hindu society
Religious Beliefs
- Followers primarily belong to “Namashudra” caste (traditionally regarded as lower-caste group within Hinduism)
- Monotheist – does not follow Vedic rituals
- Singing hymns in praise of deity is their way of prayer and meditation
- Salvation lies in faith and devotion; ultimate objective is to attain truth through meditation and worship
- No distinctions of caste, creed, or class – believe everyone is a child of God
- Shrishriharililamrta is principal religious scripture
Geographical Distribution
- Significant socio-religious presence in Bengal region – particularly across Bangladesh and West Bengal
- Today, Matuas constitute the second largest SC population of West Bengal
Migration History
- Following partition of Bengal (1947), many Matua families migrated to India to escape religious and political persecution
- Large portion of community remained in what later became Bangladesh
Key Terms for Prelims
- Matua Community: Marginalized Hindu sect founded by Harichand Thakur (1860s); Namashudra caste
- Harichand Thakur: Founder of Matua movement (19th century Bengal)
- Namashudra: Lower-caste group within Hinduism; Matuas primarily belong to this caste
- Shrishriharililamrta: Principal religious scripture of Matua community
- CAA (Citizenship Amendment Act), 2019: Grants citizenship to non-Muslim migrants from Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh (cut-off: Dec 31, 2014)
- CAA Rules (March 11, 2024): Notified by MHA; effective date of CAA implementation
- Schedule 1C: CAA application form schedule where passport declaration is now required
- Partition of Bengal (1947): Triggered migration of Matua families to India
- West Bengal Assembly Elections 2026: BJP came to power for first time; Matua community significant voter base
Possible Prelims MCQs
Q1: Who founded the Matua community movement?
- Harichand Thakur
Q2: In which region is the Matua community mainly concentrated?
- Bengal region (Bangladesh and West Bengal)
Q3: Why did the Matua movement emerge?
- As a response to caste discrimination within Hindu society
Q4: Is the Matua sect monotheistic or polytheistic?
- Monotheistic
Q5: What is the cut-off date for entry into India under the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), 2019?
- December 31, 2014
Q6: Which six non-Muslim communities are covered under CAA?
- Hindu, Sikh, Parsi, Jain, Buddhist, Christian
Q7: Under the May 2026 amendment, within how many days of citizenship approval must the applicant surrender their foreign passport?
- 15 days
Source/Reference:
Subject: Governance – Education Policy; PM SHRI Scheme; NEP 2020; Centrally Sponsored Scheme; School Education.
Why in News?
- The Union Ministry of Education signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the West Bengal government to implement the PM SHRI Schools initiative in the state.
What is PM SHRI?
Full Form
- Pradhan Mantri Schools for Rising India (PM-SHRI) Scheme
Launch
- A centrally sponsored initiative launched by the Government of India under the Ministry of Education.
- Time Period: 5 years (2022-23 to 2026-27)
- Total Outlay: Rs 27,360 crore
Objective
- To transform school education across the nation by developing over 14,500 model schools that reflect the spirit and vision of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.
Management
- Schools will be managed by the Central Government, State and UT Governments, local bodies, Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS), and Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti (NVS).
Key Features of PM SHRI Schools
- Enhanced infrastructure: Labs, libraries, art rooms.
- Integration of technology: Smart classrooms and digital learning tools.
- Holistic learning approach: Play-based learning in early years, with flexible teaching methods.
- School Quality Assessment Framework (SQAF): Regular evaluation to maintain high standards.
- Selection Process (Challenge Mode): Schools apply online and are evaluated on 6 parameters with a 100-point scale.
Key Terms for Prelims
- PM SHRI Scheme: Pradhan Mantri Schools for Rising India – centrally sponsored scheme for model schools.
- NEP 2020: National Education Policy 2020 – framework for school and higher education reforms.
- Challenge Mode: Competitive selection process for schools to be covered under the scheme.
- KVS: Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan – central body managing Kendriya Vidyalayas.
- NVS: Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti – central body managing Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas.
- SQAF: School Quality Assessment Framework – evaluation mechanism for PM SHRI schools.
Possible Prelims MCQs
Q1: What is the total outlay of the PM SHRI Scheme for its 5-year duration (2022-23 to 2026-27)?
- ₹27,360 crore
Q2: What is the funding ratio for PM SHRI schools in general states (Centre : State)?
- 60:40
Q3: What is the selection process for schools under the PM SHRI Scheme called?
- Challenge Mode
Q4: For which category of states is the funding ratio 90:10 under the PM SHRI Scheme?
- North-Eastern and Himalayan States
Source/Reference:
Subject: Environment – Forest Ecology; Polity – Tribal Rights; Fifth Schedule; Mining Conflict; FRA, 2006.
Why in News?
- Supreme Court highlighted that the Jharkhand government must respect the Supreme Court’s order regarding mining activities in the Saranda forests.
- The case revolves around balancing tribal rights, environmental protection, and mining leases in one of India’s most ecologically sensitive and mineral-rich regions.
What are Saranda Forests?
Location
- West Singhbhum district, Jharkhand.
- The name “Saranda” means “Land of Seven Hundred Hills” in the local tribal language (Ho).
Ecological Significance
- Asia’s largest contiguous Sal (Shorea robusta) forest.
- Spread over approximately 820 sq km.
- Part of the Deccan Peninsula Biogeographic Zone.
- Critical catchment area for rivers like the Koina, Roro, and Barde.
- Identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA).
Mineral Wealth
- One of India’s richest iron ore belts.
- The region has been subjected to large-scale mining by public and private companies (including Tata Steel and the state-owned Steel Authority of India Limited).
Key Issues: Conflict Between Mining and Rights
- Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 Violations
- Activists and local Sarna tribal communities allege that mining leases were renewed or granted without obtaining free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) from the Gram Sabhas.
- The Sarna tribe is a group of Adivasis who follow a distinct indigenous faith (animistic) separate from Hinduism, Islam, or Christianity.
- Supreme Court Intervention
- The Supreme Court has previously intervened to stop illegal mining and regulate operations to protect the forest cover.
- The current editorial refers to an SC order that the Jharkhand government is allegedly not fully complying with, specifically regarding the eviction of illegal miners and restoration of forest land.
- Environmental Degradation
- Large-scale mining has led to deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and water pollution in the region.
- The Koina River, a lifeline for local communities, has suffered from siltation and chemical runoff.
- Impact on Tribals
- Displacement of local Munda, Ho, and Oraon tribes without adequate rehabilitation.
- Destruction of traditional livelihoods (forest produce, shifting cultivation).
Key Terms for Prelims
- Saranda Forest: Asia’s largest Sal forest (Jharkhand).
- Sal (Shorea robusta): A dominant tree species of tropical deciduous forests in India.
- West Singhbhum: District in Jharkhand rich in iron ore.
- FRA, 2006: Forest Rights Act – requires Gram Sabha consent for forest land diversion.
- FPIC (Free, Prior, and Informed Consent): Principle requiring tribal communities to consent to projects affecting their land.
- Sarna Tribe: Adivasi community of Jharkhand following indigenous faith; demand for separate religious code.
- Koina River: River flowing through Saranda; affected by mining runoff.
Possible Prelims MCQs
Q1: Saranda forest, recently in news for mining-related controversies, is located in which Indian state?
- Jharkhand
Q2: Saranda forest is known for being the largest contiguous forest of which tree species in Asia?
- Sal (Shorea robusta)
Q3: The local tribal communities protesting mining in Saranda primarily belong to which indigenous faith?
- Sarna
Q4: Which river, flowing through Saranda, has been severely polluted by iron ore mining runoff?
- Koina
Q5: The constitutional provision for administration of Scheduled Areas (where Saranda is located) is provided under:
- Fifth Schedule
Source/Reference:
(MAINS Focus)
GS Paper II – Social Justice (Health) | GS Paper I – Society (Demographics)
Population Ageing; Non-Communicable Diseases; Primary Health Care; Health System Reform
Introduction
Asia is witnessing rapid population ageing, with its 65-plus population projected to rise from 414 million in 2020 to 1.2 billion by 2060. Older adults already bear a major burden of non-communicable diseases, but weak primary healthcare systems in many South and Southeast Asian countries remain ill-equipped to meet ageing-related health needs.
Main Body
The Demographic and Epidemiological Transition
Ageing in Asia:
- World population aged 60+: from 12% (2015) to 22% (2050).
- Asia’s 65+ population: from 414 million (2020) to 1.2 billion (2060).
- Asia’s share of world’s older population: above 60% by 2060.
Rising Burden of NCDs (Global Burden of Disease Study 2021):
- Older adults accounted for nearly 2 billion NCD cases globally.
- Over 800 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) lost.
- Approximately 34.68 million deaths annually.
Implications:
- Systems built for episodic care are now expected to manage long-term conditions requiring continuity and coordination.
- Older adults need care that is ongoing, coordinated across providers, and responsive to declining function.
The Role of Primary Care
What Primary Care Can Do:
- Personal health services at primary health care facilities can manage NCDs.
- Proximity to communities enables continuous care and easier access for individuals with mobility issues.
What Primary Care Is Expected to Do (Expanded Role):
- First-contact clinical care.
- Platform for public health outreach.
- Coordination across clinical services, long-term care, and social support.
- Rehabilitation, long-term support, and assistance with daily functioning.
The Gap:
- Expectations have expanded without clear definition of responsibilities or capacity to meet them.
- Primary care systems in many South and Southeast Asian countries are not able to perform this role.
Regional Variations in Long-Term Care Integration
Thailand and Singapore:
- Long-term care more closely integrated within the health system.
- Primary care expected to act as a gateway to a broader continuum of services.
Malaysia and Indonesia:
- Responsibilities split between health and social welfare sectors.
- Often result in parallel systems with limited coordination.
India and Bangladesh (South Asia):
- Care for older adults continues to rely heavily on families.
- Formal systems play a more limited role.
Consequences: Bypassing Primary Care
Care-Seeking Patterns:
- In many urban settings, older adults bypass primary care and go directly to hospitals.
- Often attributed to lack of awareness, but may reflect lack of confidence in primary care’s ability to manage complex, long-term needs.
When Primary Care Is Not Seen as Capable:
- Hospitals become default point of access.
- Not because hospitals are best suited, but because alternatives are fragmented or absent.
- Places pressure on already strained health systems.
- Shifts financial and caregiving burdens onto households.
Capacity Constraints in Primary Care
Personnel and Expertise:
- Shortages of trained personnel.
- Limited geriatric expertise.
- Weak multidisciplinary models of care.
Service Availability:
- Home-based care unevenly available.
- Palliative care unevenly available.
Data Systems:
- Fragmented data systems with limited patient tracking.
- Interoperable records lacking.
- Difficult to ensure continuity for patients navigating multiple providers over time.
What Is Needed: Structural Reforms
Moving Beyond Narrow Conception:
- Primary care’s future role lies in connecting clinical services, long-term support, rehabilitation, and social protection into a more coherent whole.
- Not simply first-contact treatment.
Difficult but Necessary Questions:
- What governance arrangements enable meaningful integration across sectors?
- What financing models support continuity rather than episodic care?
- What forms of data infrastructure are needed to sustain a life-course approach to health?
Clarifying Institutional Roles:
- Aligning incentives.
- Building systems of accountability.
Conclusion
Asia’s ageing population is rapidly increasing, with people aged 65+ projected to reach 1.2 billion by 2060. Rising NCD burdens, weak geriatric care, shortages of trained personnel, and low trust in primary healthcare are straining health systems, forcing many older adults to depend on hospitals or family support.
UPSC Mains Practice Question
- Examine the challenges faced by primary healthcare systems in managing ageing populations in Asia. What reforms are needed to ensure continuous and coordinated elderly care? (250 words, 15 marks)
https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/asia-is-ageing-can-primary-care-keep-up-10696511/
GS Paper III – Disaster Management | GS Paper I – Geography (Climate)
Pre-monsoon Convective Systems; Early Warning Systems; Infrastructure Vulnerability; Foreseeable Risks
Introduction
Severe pre-monsoon thunderstorms, lightning, dust storms, and heavy rain struck Uttar Pradesh, causing 111 deaths and 72 injuries across 26 districts by May 14. Despite alerts from the India Meteorological Department and warnings through the SACHET portal, the recurring nature of such events since 2018 highlights gaps between forecasting and effective disaster preparedness.
Main Body
The Weather Event and Its Predictability
What Happened:
- Pre-monsoon convective system with thunderstorms, dust storms, lightning, heavy rain, and thundersqualls.
- Winds capable of uprooting trees.
- 111 deaths and 72 injuries across 26 districts of Uttar Pradesh.
What Drove the Storm:
- Pre-monsoon convective system.
- Fresh western disturbance over the northwest further destabilising conditions.
- Convergence zone: hot, dry ‘loo’ winds from Thar moving east over plains + moisture-laden winds from Bay of Bengal pushing in from southeast.
- Over undulating Vindhya hills (Mirzapur, Sonbhadra), convergent air masses lift rapidly, producing thunderstorms over specific areas.
Predictability:
- Similar weather events have occurred in May-June in Uttar Pradesh since 2018.
- IMD issued thunderstorm and lightning alerts before the event.
- State government issued more than 34 crore red and orange alert messages via the SACHET portal.
- The underlying risk was hardly unforeseeable.
Why Warnings May Have Failed
Geographic Precision:
- It is unclear whether warnings were sufficiently geographically precise.
- Thunderstorms often affect specific districts or even blocks, not entire regions.
Timeliness and Reach:
- It is unclear whether warnings reached intended beneficiaries in time.
- 34 crore messages were issued, but did they reach the vulnerable population?
- SACHET portal messages may not penetrate remote rural areas effectively.
Actionable Instructions:
- It is unclear whether warnings simply warned of impending adverse weather or carried instructions for people to act.
- “Thunderstorm alert” is different from “seek shelter, avoid open fields, disconnect electrical appliances.”
Proximate Causes of Death and Damage
Housing Vulnerability:
- Uttar Pradesh has a large number of structurally vulnerable rural and peri-urban households.
- If a storm strikes at dusk or later, people are often indoors or resting under fragile roofs (collapse, falling debris).
Public Infrastructure:
- Improperly placed or poorly installed hoardings.
- Unsafe electrical wiring (electrocution, fires).
- Public signage that becomes projectile in high winds.
Farming and Crop Loss:
- The State announced separate relief packages depending on the type of farming, crop, and loss.
- This indicates that the State was aware of the kinds of damage such storms could cause.
The Core Problem: Foreseeable Risk, Yet High Vulnerability
The Contradiction:
- Weather events recur at predictable times of the year (May-June in Uttar Pradesh since 2018).
- IMD and State government have warning systems in place (SACHET portal, alerts).
- Yet 111 deaths occurred.
Sharp Questions:
- Why were warnings not sufficiently geographically precise?
- Why did they not reach intended beneficiaries in time?
- Why did they not carry actionable instructions?
- Why are housing and public infrastructure still vulnerable despite years of recurring storms?
The Disconnect:
- Between warning issuance and warning effectiveness.
- Between risk assessment and risk mitigation (housing, hoardings, wiring).
- Between relief announcement (after disaster) and preventive action (before disaster).
Way Forward: From Warnings to Action
For IMD and State Government:
- Ensure geographically precise warnings (district-level or block-level, not state-wide).
- Use multiple channels beyond SACHET: SMS, mobile apps, local radio, public address systems, ASHA workers, panchayat announcements.
- Include actionable instructions: “Seek shelter in pucca buildings, avoid open fields, stay away from trees and hoardings, disconnect electrical appliances.”
- Conduct mock drills and public awareness campaigns before the pre-monsoon season.
For Housing and Infrastructure:
- Strengthen rural housing against high winds (storm-resistant roofs, secure foundations).
- Audit and regulate hoardings, signage, and electrical wiring (remove unsafe installations before storm season).
- Enforce building codes in peri-urban areas.
For Disaster Response:
- Pre-position relief materials in vulnerable districts before May-June.
- Train local volunteers (SHGs, panchayat members) in first aid and rescue.
- Ensure rapid clearance of uprooted trees and debris to restore access.
Conclusion
Pre-monsoon storms in Uttar Pradesh killed 111 people despite alerts from the India Meteorological Department and mass warnings through the SACHET portal. The recurring disasters expose gaps not in forecasting, but in actionable warnings, resilient infrastructure, and protection of vulnerable rural populations.
UPSC Mains Practice Question
- Critically examine India’s preparedness for recurrent extreme weather events. How can the gap between early warnings and effective disaster response be bridged? (250 words, 15 marks)