Archives
(PRELIMS Focus)
Subject: Science & Technology (Space) (Comets, Interstellar Objects, James Webb Space Telescope (JWST))
Why in News?
Recent observations by the 3I/ATLAS using the James Webb Space Telescope suggest that it may have formed 10–12 billion years ago, making it potentially older than the Sun and one of the oldest objects ever studied in the Solar System. Scientists have also detected methane and unusual chemical signatures in the comet.
What is 3I/ATLAS?
- 3I/ATLAS is the third confirmed interstellar object observed passing through our Solar System.
- The name signifies:
- 3I → Third identified interstellar object.
- ATLAS → Discovered by the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) survey telescope.
- Unlike ordinary comets, it originated outside the Solar System and follows a hyperbolic orbit, meaning it is not gravitationally bound to the Sun.
Previous Interstellar Visitors
ʻOumuamua (1I)
- Discovered in 2017.
- First known interstellar object.
2I/Borisov
- Discovered in 2019.
- First confirmed interstellar comet.
3I/ATLAS
- Third confirmed interstellar visitor.
- Only the second confirmed interstellar comet.
Major Scientific Findings
Potentially Older Than the Sun
- Researchers estimate the comet may be 10–12 billion years old.
- The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
- This suggests 3I/ATLAS could be a relic from the early Milky Way.
Unique Chemical Composition
Observations reveal:
- Methane (CH₄)
- Water vapour (H₂O)
- Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
- Organic molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.
Unusual Isotopic Signatures
- Extremely high deuterium (heavy hydrogen) content.
- Chemical ratios unlike those found in most Solar System comets.
- Indicates formation in a colder and more primitive environment around another star.
Why is it Important?
Time Capsule of Early Galaxy
- Preserves material from the early stages of planetary formation.
- Offers clues about the composition of ancient star systems.
Understanding Planet Formation
- Helps scientists compare planetary systems beyond our Solar System.
- Provides direct evidence about conditions in other stellar nurseries.
Interstellar Science
- Demonstrates that objects can travel between star systems over billions of years.
- Supports theories about the exchange of material across the galaxy.
Role of James Webb Space Telescope
The JWST made the first detailed chemical analysis of 3I/ATLAS and:
- Detected methane directly for the first time in an interstellar visitor.
- Mapped the distribution of gases in the comet’s coma.
- Helped determine its likely origin and age.
Source/Reference
Subject: Science & Technology / Geography / Disaster Management (Oceanography Institutions, Tsunami Warning Systems, Ocean Information Services)
Why in News?
The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) celebrated its Foundation Day with the launch of new ocean-information products and services aimed at enhancing marine safety, ocean monitoring, and coastal resilience.
What is INCOIS?
- The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) is an autonomous institution under the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
- Established in 1999.
- Headquarters: Hyderabad.
- It is a unit of the Earth System Science Organisation (ESSO).
Mission
To provide ocean data, information, forecasts, and advisory services to society, government agencies, industry, and the scientific community through ocean observations and research.
Major Functions of INCOIS
- Tsunami Early Warning Services
- Hosts the Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC).
- Provides round-the-clock tsunami monitoring and warning services.
- Recognized by UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission as a Regional Tsunami Service Provider for Indian Ocean countries.
- Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) Advisories
- Provides advisories to fishermen identifying areas with high fish concentration.
- Helps reduce fuel consumption and improve catch efficiency.
- Ocean State Forecasts
- Issues forecasts on:
- Waves
- Currents
- Sea Surface Temperature
- Swell Surges
- Coastal conditions
- Used by fishermen, shipping operators, the Navy, and the Coast Guard.
- Multi-Hazard Ocean Warnings
- High-wave alerts.
- Storm-surge warnings.
- Marine heatwave advisories.
- Coral bleaching alerts.
- Harmful algal bloom information.
Key Ocean Observation Infrastructure
Ocean Observing Systems
INCOIS deploys and manages:
- Ocean buoys
- Argo floats
- Tide gauges
- Satellite-based ocean observation systems
These systems collect real-time oceanographic data for forecasting and research.
Ocean Information Bank
- National repository of marine data.
- Stores physical, chemical, biological, and geological ocean data.
International Role
INCOIS serves as:
- India’s National Oceanographic Data Centre.
- Regional Argo Data Centre for the Indian Ocean.
- Provider of ocean information services to Indian Ocean Rim countries.
- Active participant in global ocean-observation programmes.
Important Mobile and Digital Services
SAMUDRA App
Provides:
- Ocean forecasts
- Wave information
- Tsunami alerts
- Marine advisories
Other Emerging Services
- JellyAIIP (Jellyfish Advisory and Information Platform)
- SIVAS (specialized ocean information services)
Role in Disaster Management
INCOIS contributes significantly to:
- Tsunami preparedness
- Cyclone impact assessment
- Coastal flooding forecasts
- Search and rescue operations
- Marine disaster mitigation
Its early warning systems have helped save lives and reduce economic losses across the Indian Ocean region.
Source/Reference
https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2277120®=48&lang=1
Subject: Geography (Physical Geography) / Disaster Management (Volcanoes of the World, Volcanic Hazards)
Why in News?
Recently, a viral video showed tourists scrambling for safety after Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala erupted, showering the surrounding area with incandescent volcanic material. The incident renewed attention to one of the world’s most active volcanoes.
About Volcán de Fuego
- Volcán de Fuego (“Volcano of Fire”) is an active stratovolcano located in Guatemala.
- It lies about 43 km southwest of Guatemala City.
- It forms part of the Central American Volcanic Arc, created by the subduction of the Cocos Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate.
Key Characteristics
Type
- Stratovolcano (Composite Volcano)
- Characterized by alternating layers of lava, ash, and volcanic debris.
Elevation
- Approximately 3,763 metres (12,346 feet) above sea level.
Volcanic Activity
- Considered the most active volcano in Guatemala.
- Frequently produces small eruptions, often every 15–20 minutes, releasing ash, gas, and incandescent material.
Recent Eruption Incident (2026)
- Tourists hiking near the volcano were caught off guard when volcanic bombs and hot debris were ejected during an eruption.
- Videos showed hikers running for cover as glowing rocks landed nearby.
- No major injuries were reported, though some visitors narrowly escaped being struck by falling debris.
Safety Concerns
Authorities have repeatedly warned visitors against entering high-risk zones around the volcano because of:
- Falling volcanic bombs
- Ash emissions
- Toxic gases
- Pyroclastic flows during larger eruptions.
2018 Fuego Eruption
One of the deadliest volcanic disasters of the 21st century occurred in June 2018 when:
- Massive eruptions generated pyroclastic flows.
- Nearby settlements were buried under hot ash and volcanic debris.
- More than 100 people lost their lives.
What are Pyroclastic Flows?
- Fast-moving currents of hot gas, ash, and volcanic fragments.
- Can travel at speeds exceeding 100 km/h.
- Temperatures may exceed 700°C.
- Among the most dangerous volcanic hazards.
Geological Significance
Central American Volcanic Belt
Fuego is part of a chain of active volcanoes extending across Central America due to tectonic plate convergence.
Neighbouring Volcanoes
Fuego is closely associated with:
- Acatenango Volcano
- Agua Volcano
Together they form a prominent volcanic complex in southern Guatemala.
Source/Reference
Subject: Art & Culture / Society (Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), Tribal Communities of India)
Why in News?
Recently, President Droupadi Murmu interacted with members of the Sahariya Tribe and Cheetah Mitras during her visit to Kuno National Park, recognizing their contribution to Project Cheetah.
About the Sahariya Tribe
- The Sahariya are one of India’s Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
- They are primarily found in:
- Madhya Pradesh
- Rajasthan
- Alternative names include Seher, Sair, Savar, Saonar, and Sahra.
Distribution
Major Concentration
- Sheopur, Shivpuri, Guna, Ashoknagar and Morena districts of Madhya Pradesh.
- Baran district of Rajasthan has a significant Sahariya population.
Settlements
- They traditionally reside in separate hamlets called “Seharana”.
- Houses are often constructed using stone boulders and stone slabs (locally called Patore), though mud houses are also common.
Why are Sahariyas Classified as a PVTG?
The Sahariya community faces:
- Low literacy levels.
- Poor health indicators.
- Economic vulnerability.
- Dependence on forests and wage labour.
- High levels of malnutrition in some regions.
Criteria for PVTG Status
PVTGs are identified based on:
- Pre-agricultural level of technology.
- Low literacy.
- Economic backwardness.
- Stagnant or declining population.
Language
- Speak dialects belonging to the Indo-Aryan language family.
- Local variations are influenced by Hindi and regional languages.
Livelihood
Traditionally dependent on:
- Collection of minor forest produce.
- Hunting and gathering (historically).
- Agriculture and agricultural labour.
- Daily wage work.
Forest-Based Economy
Important forest products include:
- Honey
- Gum
- Medicinal plants
- Fuelwood
Culture and Beliefs
- Rich tradition of folk songs, dances, and oral narratives.
- Worship nature and local deities alongside mainstream Hindu practices.
- Festivals are closely linked with agricultural and forest cycles.
Connection with Kuno National Park
- Many Sahariya families live in and around Kuno National Park.
- Members of the tribe participate as:
- Cheetah Mitras
- Wildlife trackers
- Tourist guides
- Conservation support staff.
Their involvement has strengthened community participation in wildlife conservation and the success of Project Cheetah.
Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)
- India has 75 PVTGs among its Scheduled Tribes.
- The category was introduced to provide focused developmental support to the most vulnerable tribal communities.
Ministry Responsible
- Ministry of Tribal Affairs
Source/Reference
Subject: International Relations / Maritime Governance (UN Specialized Agencies, Maritime Safety, International Shipping)
Why in News?
The International Maritime Organization (IMO), in coordination with Oman, Iran, and other stakeholders, recently announced a large-scale evacuation plan for over 11,000 seafarers stranded in and around the Strait of Hormuz following months of disruption to maritime traffic.
What is the International Maritime Organization (IMO)?
- The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for regulating international shipping.
- It was established through a convention adopted in 1948 and became operational in 1959.
- Headquarters: London.
- It provides the global framework for safe, secure, efficient, and environmentally sustainable shipping.
Objectives of IMO
The organization aims to:
- Improve maritime safety.
- Enhance security of ships and ports.
- Prevent marine pollution from ships.
- Facilitate efficient international maritime trade.
- Develop uniform global shipping standards.
Major Functions
- Maritime Safety
IMO formulates international regulations covering:
- Ship design and construction.
- Navigation safety.
- Crew training and certification.
- Search and rescue operations.
- Marine Environmental Protection
- Reduces pollution from ships.
- Regulates disposal of wastes at sea.
- Addresses greenhouse gas emissions from maritime transport.
- Maritime Security
- Develops measures against piracy, terrorism, and unlawful maritime activities.
- Legal Framework
- Provides conventions governing liability, compensation, and maritime disputes.
Important IMO Conventions
SOLAS
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
- Considered the most important maritime safety treaty.
MARPOL
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
- Main global treaty against marine pollution.
STCW
Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers
- Sets minimum training standards for seafarers.
COLREG
Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
- Governs navigation rules for vessels.
Recent Strait of Hormuz Evacuation Plan
Background
Following disruptions in the Strait of Hormuz, hundreds of vessels and thousands of seafarers remained stranded in the Gulf region.
IMO’s Response
- Coordinated a phased evacuation operation.
- Worked with Iran, Oman, regional coastal states, and the maritime industry.
- Secured navigation safety guarantees before beginning vessel movements.
Significance
- Demonstrates IMO’s role beyond rule-making.
- Highlights its contribution to maritime safety and protection of seafarers during crises.
India and IMO
- India has been a member of IMO since 1959.
- The Directorate General of Shipping represents India in IMO affairs.
- India actively participates in:
- Maritime safety initiatives.
- Marine pollution control.
- Seafarer welfare measures.
- Green shipping negotiations.
Why is IMO Important?
Global Trade
- Around 80–90% of global merchandise trade is transported by sea.
- Uniform standards reduce shipping risks and costs.
Environmental Protection
- Helps combat marine pollution and climate impacts of shipping.
Maritime Security
- Promotes safe navigation through critical sea lanes and chokepoints.
Seafarer Welfare
- Protects the rights and safety of millions of seafarers worldwide.
Source/Reference
Subject: Polity & Governance / Social Justice (National Awards, Child Welfare, Ministry of Women & Child Development)
Why in News?
The Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD) has invited nominations for the Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Bal Puraskar (PMRBP) 2026. Nominations are open until 31 July 2026 through the National Awards Portal.
What is Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Bal Puraskar (PMRBP)?
- PMRBP is India’s highest civilian honour for children.
- It recognizes exceptional achievements by children who have made outstanding contributions in various fields and inspired society through their accomplishments.
- The award is administered by the Ministry of Women and Child Development.
Categories of the Award
The award is conferred in six categories:
- Bravery
- Social Service
- Environment
- Sports
- Art & Culture
- Science & Technology
Eligibility
- Children aged 5–18 years (as on 31 July 2026).
- Must be Indian citizens residing in India.
- Both self-nominations and third-party recommendations are accepted.
Selection Process
- Nominations are submitted through the National Awards Portal.
- Applications are evaluated by a screening and selection committee comprising government representatives and subject experts.
Award Components
Awardees receive:
- A medal
- A certificate/citation
- National recognition by the Government of India
The awards are announced on Veer Bal Diwas (26 December) and are subsequently conferred by the President of India. Awardees also receive recognition at national-level events.
Historical Background
- PMRBP was created in 2018 by merging and renaming earlier child awards.
- It seeks to celebrate young achievers who demonstrate excellence, innovation, courage, leadership, and social commitment.
Significance
Encourages Excellence
- Recognizes extraordinary achievements by children across diverse fields.
Promotes Social Responsibility
- Highlights contributions made by children toward society, environment, and nation-building.
Creates Role Models
- Awardees serve as inspiration for other children to pursue innovation, service, and excellence.
Sources
(MAINS Focus)
GS I – Society / GS II – Governance & Social Justice
Population Dynamics, Ageing, and Social Security
Introduction
India’s TFR has fallen to 1.9, below the replacement level, signalling a shift to low fertility. However, uneven fertility patterns and rapid ageing—projected to reach 347 million elderly by 2050—pose major challenges. Strengthening pensions, healthcare, and social security is essential to sustain this demographic transition.
India’s Fertility Decline: A Divergent Demographic Landscape
National Trends and Replacement Level
- TFR (2024-25): 1.9 (below replacement level of 2.1)
- Global Comparison: Below global average of 2.2
- Rural-Urban Divide: Rural fertility around replacement (2.1); urban fertility at 1.5
Geographic Disparities
- Ultra-Low Fertility States: Delhi (1.2), Kerala (1.3), Tamil Nadu (1.3), West Bengal (1.3)
- Below Global Peers: Lower than US (1.6), Finland (1.4), and Japan (1.3)
- High Fertility States: Bihar (2.9), Uttar Pradesh (2.6), Madhya Pradesh (2.4), Rajasthan (2.3)
Demographic Implications
- Two Indias: Some states ageing rapidly; others with large cohorts entering labour force
- Policy Challenge: Create productive opportunities for young in poorer states while strengthening systems for ageing populations
The Ageing Challenge: Institutional and Fiscal Weakness
Ageing Population Projections
- Current Elderly (60+): 150 million (2026)
- Projected (2050): 347 million (nearly one-fifth of population)
- Dependency Burden: 70% of elderly depend on others; 78% have no pension cover
Fiscal and Institutional Constraints
- Per-Capita Income: ~$2,800 (much lower than Western Europe/Japan at time of ageing)
- Narrow Tax Base: Net direct taxpayers: only ~6% of total population
- Stretched State Finances: States tasked with social-sector response are already fiscally strained
- Weak Formal Employment: Most workers in informal/semi-formal work; old-age income security outside formal contracts
Labour Market Fragility
- Contribution-Based Pensions: Require predictable earnings, formal employment, regular savings over decades
- Assumption Fails: Holds true for only a minority of Indian workforce
- Existing Safety Nets: Atal Pension Yojana requires sustained contributions (difficult for informal workers); National Social Assistance Programme pension: ₹200/month (60-79 years), ₹500/month (80+)
Erosion of Traditional Support Systems
The Hidden Welfare State
- Joint Family System: Absorbed old-age costs through co-resident children and unpaid female care
- Weakening Arrangements: Under pressure from urbanisation, migration, nuclear households, women’s educational and work aspirations
Consequences of Migration
- Studies on Left-Behind Elderly: Migration improves monetary resources but worsens loneliness and health vulnerability
- Care Deficit: Unpaid care work not replaced by institutional support
Healthcare Demand Shift
- Disease Profile Change: Pressure from long-term management of hypertension, diabetes, dementia, disability, and palliative dependence
- Institutional Gaps: Need to embed geriatric care into nursing practice, district health planning, and primary care
Federal Dimension: Migration and Welfare Portability
Interstate Migration as a Coping Mechanism
- Faster-Ageing States: Will increasingly need workers from younger states
- Younger States’ Responsibility: Must invest in education, health, and skills to ensure workers don’t move into low-wage informality
Welfare Portability
- Current Problem: Welfare systems tied narrowly to domicile
- Need for National Labour Market: Workers’ entitlements must move across state borders
- Solution: Portable welfare benefits as foundation of an ageing economy
Treating Migrants as Citizens
- Challenge: Older, richer, urbanised states must treat migrants as citizens who sustain their economies
- Entitlements: Must include access to healthcare, pensions, and social security regardless of domicile
Way Forward: Building Systems for an Ageing India
Income Security and Pensions
- Minimum Pension Floor: Inflation-indexed universal pension as basic layer of public risk-pooling
- Strengthen Contributory Pensions: Expand coverage, simplify for informal workers
- Financial Inclusion: Link pension payments to digital infrastructure (e.g., Aadhaar, UPI)
- Sustained Contributions: Create flexible contribution mechanisms for volatile incomes
Healthcare System Transformation
- Geriatric Care Integration: Embed into primary health centres, district hospitals, and nursing education
- Chronic Disease Management: Strengthen screening and management of hypertension, diabetes, dementia
- Palliative Care: Expand coverage for elderly with disabilities and terminal illnesses
- Mission-Mode Action: Sustained public investment similar to fertility, institutional deliveries, child survival
Federal Cooperation and Welfare Portability
- Interstate Migration Framework: Treat migrants as citizens, not temporary labour
- Portable Entitlements: Pensions, healthcare, and social security must move with workers
- State Collaboration: Create mechanisms for cost-sharing between origin and destination states
- National Labour Market: Dismantle domicile-based barriers to welfare access
Investment in Younger States
- Education and Health: Aggressive investment to build human capital
- Skill Development: Ensure workers are ready for productive employment
- Employment Generation: Create opportunities to absorb young cohorts
- Avoid Low-Wage Informality: Skilling must lead to quality jobs, not just migration into informality
Social and Institutional Reforms
- Community-Based Care: Strengthen support systems for left-behind elderly
- Gender and Care: Recognise and support unpaid care work
- Public-Private Partnerships: Engage private sector in elderly care and pension products
- Awareness Campaigns: Educate on financial planning for retirement and old age
Conclusion
India’s shift to low fertility brings the challenge of rapid ageing before achieving full economic and social development. With the elderly population set to more than double by 2050, India must strengthen pensions, healthcare, and social security while creating opportunities for its young workforce. A sustainable low-fertility future will depend on timely institutional and welfare reforms.
Practice Question
- India’s shift to low fertility is accompanied by rapid population ageing. Discuss the challenges arising from this transition and suggest measures for ensuring demographic sustainability. (250 words, 15 marks)
GS II – Polity and Governance / GS IV – Ethics
Constitutional Values, Democratic Institutions, and Media Freedom
Introduction
Fifty years after the 1975 Emergency, concerns persist about democratic backsliding through subtler means such as media self-censorship, pressure on dissent, weakening institutional autonomy, and expansive use of national security narratives. While today’s context differs from the Emergency, the episode remains a reminder of the need to safeguard democratic freedoms and accountability.
The Emergency (1975-77): A Historical Benchmark
Key Features
- Prior Censorship: Complete control over media content
- Indefinite Detention: Dissidents imprisoned without trial
- Suspension of Habeas Corpus: Sacred constitutional right temporarily revoked
- Constitutional Subversion: Two-thirds majority used to push through authoritarian measures
- Sycophancy: “Indira is India and India is Indira” – personality cult
Lessons Ignored
- Suppression of opposing viewpoints cannot succeed in a diverse, argumentative society
- Brute majorities can be misused to subvert democratic institutions
- Emergency excesses were meant to be a warning for future generations
Contemporary Challenges to Democracy
Media Freedom Under Strain
- Self-Censorship: Journalists soft-peddle uncomfortable truths to avoid offending power
- Government Narratives: Channels devote excessive time to ruling party spokespersons
- Economic Pressure: Fear of losing access to news sources essential for livelihoods
- Harassment: NewsClick portal shutdown, editor arrested under anti-terror laws (Delhi HC intervention)
- Trump’s Observation: “Your reporters are much nicer than mine” – unwitting confirmation of reluctance to ask tough questions
Evolution of Censorship
- Yesterday’s Censor → Today’s Media Adviser: Professional communication experts with little connect to free marketplace of ideas
- Narrative Management: Treated as marketing/PR exercise, not democratic discourse
- Social Media Trolling: Toxic harassment of contrary viewpoints
- Investigative Agencies: Used to harass media dissenters and political opponents
- National Security Bogey: All-encompassing justification for violating citizens’ rights; IT rules amended to access “unlawful” internet chatter
Erosion of Institutional Independence
- Election Commission: Exclusion of over 90 lakh names from West Bengal SIR rolls – question mark over electoral integrity
- Constitutional Bodies: Falling standards of independence and probity
- Internal Party Democracy: BJP parliamentary board rarely meets; merely rubber stamps decisions; surprise elevation of inexperienced persons as CMs without consultation
- Horse-Trading: TMC and Shiv Sena (UBT) MPs jumping ship overnight – reinforces belief that most politicians have a price
Executive Accountability Deficit
- Radio Silence: Government’s silence over NEET and CBSE exam mess-ups affecting lakhs of students
- Perception: Responding to public complaints viewed as weakness
- Lack of Internal Debate: Ruling party lacks inner-party democracy
- Two-Thirds Majority Pursuit: Ethical majority through ballot box vs. post-election poaching of opposition legislators
Way Forward: Strengthening Democratic Resilience
Restoring Media Independence
- Protect Press Freedom: Ensure no harassment of journalists for reporting truth
- Encourage Investigative Journalism: Shift focus from studio debates to ground reporting
- Counter Self-Censorship: Create safe spaces for independent journalism
- Accountability for Agencies: Prevent misuse of investigative machinery against media
Strengthening Institutions
- Election Commission: Restore credibility; ensure transparent and inclusive electoral rolls
- Constitutional Bodies: Appointments must be transparent and non-partisan
- Internal Party Democracy: Encourage debate and consultation in political parties
- Legislative Accountability: Strengthen parliamentary oversight
Reforming Governance
- Responsiveness: Government must be directly answerable to people
- Transparency: End “radio silence” on public grievances
- Ethical Majority: Secure majority through ballot box, not post-election poaching
- Rule of Law: Investigative agencies must act independently, not as political tools
Learning from the Past
- Remember Emergency Lessons: Excessive authoritarianism backfires
- Value Democracy: India’s diversity requires debate, not suppression
- Media Advisers: Learn from past media advisers (Sharada Prasad, B.G. Verghese, Arun Jaitley) who befriended journalists through access, tolerance, polite exchange
- Respect Dissent: Suppressing opposing viewpoints is both unethical and impractical
Conclusion
Five decades after the Emergency, concerns remain about democratic backsliding through subtler means such as curbs on dissent, institutional weakening, and reduced accountability. The lesson of 1975 is clear: safeguarding democratic institutions, media freedom, and constitutional values is essential for preserving the republic.
Practice Question
- The lessons of the Emergency remain relevant in the face of emerging challenges to democratic institutions and freedoms. Examine and suggest measures to strengthen democratic resilience in India. (250 words, 15 marks)