Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Dusky Eagle-Owl Category: Environment and Ecology Context: The elusive Dusky Eagle-owl (Ketupa coromanda) has been sighted in the Phato tourism zone of Uttarakhand’s Terai West forest division after a 15-year hiatus. About Dusky Eagle-Owl: Family: The Dusky Eagle-owl is a large, powerful bird of prey belonging to the family Strigidae. Nature: Unlike many other owls, it is notably partly diurnal, meaning it can be active and hunt during the day, especially in cloudy or overcast weather. Distribution: It is found across South and Southeast Asia, including India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. Specific Environment: It favours lowland riparian forests (forests near water bodies), plantations, and old-growth woodlands. Elevation: It typically resides in flat, open habitats at elevations ranging from 0 to 250 meters. IUCN Status: It is classified as Least Concern as per the IUCN Red Data List. Appearance: It is a large, grayish-brown owl (48–58 cm long) with striking yellow eyes. Physical features: It features long, prominent ear tufts (feathers used for camouflage and communication), fine barring on its underparts, and white patches on its shoulders. Diet pattern: It is an apex predator with a highly diverse diet. It hunts birds (crows, parakeets, herons), mammals (rats, hares, squirrels, porcupines), fish, reptiles, and insects. Breeding: It rarely builds its own nest, preferring to repurpose old stick nests made by kites, vultures, or eagles. A female typically lays 1 to 3 eggs. Vocalization: Its call consists of low, guttural notes that increase in speed and volume before trailing off. Significance: It is known as a litmus test species, its presence indicates a healthy, undisturbed ecosystem with a robust prey base. Source: The New Indian Express Shtil Missile Category: Defence and Security Context: The Ministry of Defence signed ₹5,083-crore defence contracts to strengthen India’s maritime security, including procurement of Shtil surface-to-air missile systems. About Shtil Missile: Type: It is a ship-borne Vertical Launch Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM). Origin: It is developed by Russia (based on the Buk missile family). Range: It has an effective engagement range of 3.5 km to 50 km. Altitude: It can engage targets at altitudes ranging from 5 metres to 15 km. Guidance: It primarily uses the 9M317ME missile with semi-active radar homing (SARH). Targeting: It is capable of engaging up to 12 targets simultaneously. Layered Defence: It reinforces the Indian Navy’s layered air defence architecture, providing a rapid-reaction, all-weather engagement capability. Warship Survivability: It is specifically designed to counter high-speed anti-ship cruise missiles and supersonic fighter aircraft in contested maritime environments. Strategic Ties: The deal underscores the “time-tested” defence partnership between India and Russia despite ongoing global geopolitical pressures. Platform Integration: These missiles are integral to the weaponry of the newly commissioned INS Tushil, an upgraded Krivak III-class stealth frigate. Source: PIB World Trade Organisation (WTO) Category: International Organisations Context: The WTO MSME (Micro, Small and Medium-sized Enterprises) Group recently welcomed South Africa as the 105th member participating in the initiative. About World Trade Organisation (WTO): Nature: WTO is an international institution formed to regulate the rules for global trade among nations. Formation: It was formed under the Marrakesh Agreement signed on 15th April 1994 by 123 countries after the Uruguay Round negotiations (1986-94) of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), leading to the birth of WTO in 1995.  Evolution: WTO succeeded the GATT which had regulated world trade since 1948. GATT focused on trade in goods, while WTO covers trade in goods, services, and intellectual property, including creations, designs, and inventions. Uniqueness: It is the only global international organisation dealing with the rules of trade between nations, aiming for smooth, predictable, and free trade. Headquarters: Its headquarters is located in Geneva, Switzerland. Governance: Ministerial Conference: It is the highest decision-making body; meets at least every two years. General Council: It handles day-to-day business; also meets as the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) and Trade Policy Review Body. Director-General: Currently Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala (first woman and first African to hold the post) is the Director General of WTO. Core principles of WTO: Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN): Treat all members equally—any trade favour granted to one must be granted to all. National Treatment: Imported and locally-produced goods must be treated equally once they enter the domestic market. Predictability: Commitments are “bound” to prevent arbitrary trade barrier increases. Special & Differential Treatment (S&DT): Developing countries receive extra time and flexibility to implement agreements. Key WTO Agreements:  TRIMS (Trade-Related Investment Measures): Prohibits measures that discriminate against foreign products, e.g., local content requirements.  TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights): TRIPS resolves disputes over intellectual property rights.  AoA (Agreement on Agriculture): AoA promotes agricultural trade liberalization, focusing on market access and domestic support. Source: WTO 16th Finance Commission Category: Polity and Governance Context: 16th Finance Commission pushes urbanisation agenda while tightening fiscal discipline for local bodies  About 16th Finance Commission: Nature: The Finance Commission is a constitutional body established under Article 280 to define the financial relations between the Union and the States. Composition: It was chaired by Dr. Arvind Panagariya. The full-time members include Shri Ajay Narayan Jha, Smt. Annie George Mathew, and Dr. Niranjan Rajadhyaksha. Mandate: The 16th FC’s mandate was to recommend the vertical share of taxes for states and the horizontal formula to distribute those funds among them for the five-year award period starting April 1, 2026. Key recommendations of the 16th Finance Commission: Vertical Devolution: The Commission recommended retaining the States’ share of the divisible pool of central taxes at 41%, which the Union Government has officially accepted. Horizontal Devolution Formula: It introduced a major shift toward rewarding economic performance by adding a 10% weight for “Contribution to GDP” (replacing the previous tax effort criterion). Grants-in-Aid: It recommended total grants of ₹9.47 lakh crore over five years, specifically for local bodies (₹8 lakh crore) and disaster management (₹2.04 lakh crore).  Fiscal Roadmap: It recommended the Centre reduce its fiscal deficit to 3.5% of GDP by 2030–31. It also recommended a ceiling of 3% of GSDP for state fiscal deficits and proposed a strict ban on off-budget borrowings by states. Key challenges: Stagnant Devolution Share: The Commission retained the states’ share of central taxes at 41%, despite several states demanding an increase to 50% to meet rising welfare and infrastructure costs. Cesses and Surcharges: A primary “bone of contention” is the rising use of cesses and surcharges by the Centre. These now account for nearly 20% of the Gross Tax Revenue but are not shared with states, effectively shrinking the divisible pool. Declining Effective Transfers: While the statutory rate is 41%, the effective transfer ratio (devolution plus grants) is projected to decline to about 32.7% in 2026–27. New “Contribution to GDP” Weight: Introducing a 10% weight for a state’s contribution to GDP favours industrialised, richer states (e.g., Tamil Nadu, Karnataka). This has reduced the weight of Income Distance (from 45% to 42.5%), potentially hurting poorer states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Demographic Shifts: Southern states face a “demographic penalty” as lower population growth—resulting from successful family planning—reduces their share under population-based criteria. There are also rising costs associated with an aging population in these states. Way Forward: The “Grand Bargain”: A primary proposal is for states to accept the current 41% share in exchange for the Centre merging cesses and surcharges into the shareable tax base. Capping Levies: Implementing a statutory cap on cesses and surcharges (e.g., at 10% of Gross Tax Revenue) to ensure they remain temporary and do not permanently erode the states’ share. Transparency: Requiring annual disclosure of CAG-certified data on net tax proceeds to give states a clear view of the actual funds available for devolution. Strict Deficit Management: Enforcing a 3% GSDP fiscal deficit cap for states and a 3.5% GDP cap for the Centre by 2030–31. Eliminating Off-Budget Borrowing: Strictly discontinuing the practice of borrowing through state-owned entities to hide true debt levels. Subsidy Rationalisation: Introducing sunset clauses and clear exclusion criteria for unconditional cash transfers to ensure they target the truly needy without straining budgets. Source: Down To Earth Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC) Category: Economy Context: The Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC) celebrated its 70th Foundation Day on March 2, 2026, marking seven decades of contribution to India’s food security. About Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC): Nature: The Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC) is a Central Public Sector Enterprise (CPSE) under the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution. Objective: It serves as a premier logistics and warehousing organization supporting India’s food security, agricultural storage, and integrated supply chain management. Establishment: It was established in 1957 under the Warehousing Corporations Act, 1962 (later governed under Companies Act framework). Evolution: Its roots trace back to wartime food administration during World War II, when a separate Food Department was set up in 1942. Post-independence restructuring of the Food Ministry (1947–1958) led to the transfer of warehousing functions to the central government. Focus areas: Scientific Storage: Construction and management of warehouses and godowns for foodgrains, sugar, fertilizers, and other commodities. Logistics & Supply Chain Services: Inland container depots (ICDs), container freight stations (CFSs), and integrated logistics hubs. Support to PDS & Food Security: Assists procurement, buffer stocking, and distribution under the Public Distribution System (PDS). Custom Bonded Warehousing: Facilitates import-export trade by offering bonded storage and customs clearance support. Infrastructure Development: Acquisition and leasing of land for warehousing expansion across states. Significance: It plays a critical role in maintaining buffer stocks and ensuring smooth distribution of essential commodities nationwide. It also contributes to India’s goal of becoming a top global logistics performer by improving storage efficiency and reducing supply chain bottlenecks. Source: PIB    

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary Category: Environment and Ecology Context: The Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary is set to host the second edition of the two-day ‘Indian Bison Fest’. About Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary: Location: It is situated in the Bargarh district of Odisha. Other names: It is also known as the “Land of Bisons” due to its significant population of Indian Gaur.  Lifeline: It is bounded on the east and north by the Hirakud Reservoir (Mahanadi River), the world’s longest earthen dam. Terrain: It is characterised as an amphi-terrestrial habitat, an integrated landscape of forests, grasslands, and wetlands. Status: It was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1985. It is also a designated Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ).  Historical significance: It finds a special mention because of noted freedom fighter Veer Surendra Sai. During his rebellion against the British, his base at Barapathara was located within the sanctuary. Vegetation: Most of the plant sanctuary is covered with mixed and dry deciduous forest.  Flora: Major trees found here are Sal, Asana, Bija, Aanla, Dhaura, etc. Fauna: These include Indian leopards, sloth bears, chousingha (four-horned antelope), sambar deer, gaurs (Indian bison), wild boars, and Indian wild dogs (dholes) are among the notable animal residents. Birds: It is one of the most flocked wintering grounds of migratory birds that visit the sanctuary from far-off places. Some of the most prominent among them are the crested serpent eagle, Flower Peckers, red-vented bulbul, tree pie, drongo, and white eye oriental. Eco-Tourism: It is managed through a community-driven model involving local Gond tribal women, providing sustainable livelihoods through safaris and eco-cottages Source: The New Indian Express Eligible Manufacturer Importers (EMIs) Scheme Category: Government Schemes Context: Recently, CBIC has issued detailed eligibility conditions, application process and operational guidelines for the Eligible Manufacturer Importers (EMIs) scheme. About Eligible Manufacturer Importers (EMIs) Scheme: Nature: It is designed as a trust-based facilitation measure, encouraging compliant manufacturers to benefit from simplified procedures. Objective: Under this initiative, Eligible Manufacturer Importers (EMI) will be able to clear imported goods without paying Customs duty at the time of clearance. Duration: EMI facility will be available from 1st April, 2026 and will remain in force till 31st March, 2028. Deferred payment facility: Approved EMIs can clear imported goods from ports without immediate payment of Customs duty. Monthly cycle: Instead of transaction-based payments, duties are paid on a monthly basis as per the Deferred Payment of Import Duty Rules, 2016. Liquidity boost: The primary goal is to improve cash flow and working capital for manufacturers, allowing them to reinvest funds into production instead of tying them up in upfront taxes. Trust-based model: It operates on a “trust-but-verify” principle, rewarding highly compliant businesses with simplified procedures.  Significance: It is expected to improve ease of doing business, strengthen compliance culture, and boost domestic manufacturing. Eligibility criteria: Manufacturing Status: Must be a registered manufacturer under the CGST Act or an importer sending goods to a job worker. Track record: Must have a clean record of Customs and GST compliance, sound financial standing, and a minimum turnover. Customs footprint: A minimum requirement of filing at least 25 EXIM documents (Bills of Entry/Shipping Bills) in the preceding financial year. AEO framework: Existing Authorised Economic Operator (AEO-T1) entities, including MSMEs, are eligible to apply. Participants are expected to eventually upgrade to AEO-T2 or AEO-T3 status. Source: PIB ALMA Telescope Category: Science and Technology Context: Recently, astronomers have captured the central region of our Milky Way in unprecedented detail with the help of the ALMA telescope. About ALMA Telescope: Full form: ALMA stands for Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array. Location: It is a radio telescope located in the Atacama Desert in Chile. Objective: It is a state-of-the-art radio-telescope that studies celestial objects at millimetre and submillimetre wavelengths. Development: It was designed, planned and constructed by the US’s National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ) and the European Southern Observatory (ESO). Launch: It has been fully functional since 2013. Expanse: It consists of 66 high-precision antennas, spread over a distance of up to 16 km in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile. These antennas can be moved closer together or farther apart for different perspectives – like the zoom lens of a camera. Sensitivity: It also has extraordinary sensitivity, which allows it to detect even extremely faint radio signals. Why Atacama Desert: Low Humidity: Millimetre waves are highly susceptible to absorption by atmospheric water vapour. The Atacama is the driest place on Earth, minimizing signal loss. High Altitude: At 5,000+ metres, the atmosphere is thin, providing a clearer “window” to the universe. International Partnership: ALMA is not an Indian project; it is a global collaboration involving:  Europe: European Southern Observatory (ESO). North America: U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) and National Research Council of Canada. East Asia: National Institutes of Natural Sciences (NINS) of Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Host Country: Republic of Chile Major discoveries: Black Hole Imaging: Part of the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) project that captured the first image of the supermassive black hole (Sagittarius A*) at the center of the Milky Way. Protoplanetary Disks: Captured detailed images of the disk around the star HL Tauri, revolutionizing theories on how planets form. Einstein Ring: Observed the bending of light from distant galaxies in unprecedented detail. Source: Phys.Org Bureau of Energy Efficiency Category: Polity and Governance Context: Recently, the 25th Foundation Day of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Ministry of Power, Government of India, was celebrated in New Delhi. About Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE): Nature: It is a statutory body which was established in 2002 under the provisions of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001. Objective: The primary objective of BEE is to reduce energy intensity in the Indian economy. Nodal ministry: It comes under Ministry of Power. Coordination: It coordinates with designated consumers, designated agencies and other organizations; recognizes, identifies and utilizes the existing resources and infrastructure, in performing the functions assigned to it under the Energy Conservation Act. Indian Carbon Market (ICM): BEE is the lead implementing agency for the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS). In early 2026, BEE launched 12 offset methodologies to streamline carbon credit projects across energy, waste, and transport sectors. Regulatory functions: Develop minimum energy performance standards for equipment and appliances under Standards and Labelling Develop minimum energy performance standards for Commercial Buildings Develop Energy Consumption Norms for Designated Consumers Schemes of Bureau of Energy Efficiency: These include National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE), Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC), Standards and Labeling Scheme, Municipal Demand Side Management (MuDSM) Scheme, Agricultural Demand Side Management (AgDSM) Scheme. Source: PIB Kosi River Category: Geography Context: Over the past 200 years, the Kosi River has shifted its path westward by over 100 kilometres. About Kosi River: Nature: It is a transboundary river which flows through China, Nepal, and India. It is a prominent tributary of the Ganges. Tributaries: It is known as “Saptakoshi” in Nepal because it eventually comprises seven upper tributaries: Sun Kosi, Tama Kosi, Dudh Koshi, Indravati, Likhu, Arun, and Tamur.  Other names: People often call it the “Sorrow of Bihar” because of the big floods it can cause, especially in the Indian state of Bihar. Course: The river Kosi is formed by the confluence of three streams, namely the Sun Kosi, the Arun Kosi, and the Tamur Kosi. About 48 km north of the Indian-Nepalese frontier, the Kosi is joined by several major tributaries and breaks southward through the Siwalik Hills at the narrow Chatra Gorge. Confluence: It enters India near Hanuman Nagar (Bihar) and joins the Ganges near Kursela in the Katihar district. Area: The Kosi drains an area of 74,500 sq.km, of which only 11,070 sq.km lie within Indian Territory.  Major crop: Corn (maize) is extensively cultivated on the sandy soils of the Kosi’s basin. Shifting course: Over the last 250 years, the Kosi has shifted its course over 100 kilometres from East to West and the unstable nature of the river is attributed to the heavy silt it carries during the monsoon season. Sediment load: It carries one of the highest sediment loads in the world (second only to the Brahmaputra in India), leading to riverbed aggradation and frequent breaches of embankments. Kosi megafan: It has built one of the world’s largest alluvial fans (mega-fan) in North Bihar. Source: India Today    

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Light Combat Helicopter Prachand Category: Defence and Security Context: Recently, the President of India undertook a sortie in the indigenous Light Combat Helicopter PRACHAND at Air Force Station Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. About Light Combat Helicopter Prachand: Nature: It is an indigenously developed Light Combat Helicopter (LCH). Development: It is developed by state-run aerospace major Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. Uniqueness: It is the only attack helicopter in the world that can land and take off at an altitude of 5,000 metres (16,400 ft). Engine: It is fitted with a 5.8-tonne twin-engine named Shakti engine, primarily designed for deployment in high-altitude areas.  Speed: Its maximum speed is 268 kilometres per hour. Range: It has a range of 550 kilometres and endurance of over three hours. Stealth features: It has the best stealth features, armored-shield systems, and dark-mode attack capability. It is equipped with a countermeasure dispensing system that protects it from enemy radars or infrared seekers of enemy missiles. Crash resistant landing: Its crash-resistant landing gear gives it an added edge for better survivability, among other technologies like radar and IR signature. Protection: A pressurised cabin offers protection from nuclear, biological, and chemical contingencies. Customisation: The multi-role attack helicopter has been customised as per the requirements of the Indian armed forces to operate both in desert terrains and high-altitude sectors.  Weaponry: The weapon complement includes a 20mm nose gun in the front, capable of firing 800 rounds per minute from a range of up to 2 km. It is also integrated with Mistral 2 (Air-to-Air) and planned integration for Dhruvastra (Helina) Anti-Tank Guided Missiles. Source: PIB Football for Schools (F4S) Programme Category: Government Schemes Context: Union Minister of State for Development of NE Region distributed football at PM SHRI Kendriya Vidyalaya, Dakshin Dinajpur, as part of the Football for Schools initiative. About Football for Schools (F4S) Programme: Partnering agencies: It is run by Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) in collaboration with UNESCO. Launch: It was launched in mid-2019 with pilot projects in Puerto Rico and Lebanon. The F4S Programme will be re-launched in other regions in 2021. Objective: It seeks to make football more accessible to both boys and girls around the world by incorporating football activities into the education system, in partnership with relevant authorities and stakeholders. Implementation: In India, the programme is implemented by the Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Education (DoSEL), with support from the All India Football Federation (AIFF) and the Sports Authority of India (SAI). Global reach: It aims to contribute to the education, development and empowerment of around 700 million children globally. Life skills integration: It uses football to teach values such as teamwork, discipline, resilience, and fitness, aligning with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Inclusivity: It focuses on providing equitable access to both boys and girls, regardless of their background. Capacity building: It includes structured training for Physical Education teachers and coach-educators to ensure sustainable integration into school curricula.  Alignment: The F4S Programme is aligned with global sport, education and health policies, including UNESCO’s Kazan Action Plan, the Education 2030: Incheon Declaration and Framework of Action, and the World Health Organization (WHO) Global Action Plan on Physical Activity (GAPPA). Source: PIB Forest Owlet Category: Environment and Ecology Context: Recently, in Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh forest owl has been spotted 113 years after it was last seen. About Forest Owlet: Family: It is a member of the typical owl family, Strigidae. Rediscovery: It was first described in 1873. As it was not sighted after 1884, it was considered extinct for many years. In 1997, it was rediscovered. Habitat: It is mainly found in tropical and subtropical moist lowland woods, dense deciduous woodlands, open dry deciduous teak woods,and tropical and subtropical dry forests. Distribution: It is endemic to the forests of central India. It was observed in Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat, and at a few locations in the Melghat Tiger Reserve in Maharashtra. Appearance: It is a typical owlet with a rather unspotted crown, presence of full throat collar, thickly feathered legs, heavily banded wings, and a tail. Diurnal: These birds are diurnal and have been observed to hunt during the day. Diet pattern: They eat rodents, reptiles such as lizards and skinks, and insects. Unique behaviour: It is known for its distinctive habit of lateral tail flicking when perched. Conservation Status IUCN Red List: Endangered (Downlisted from Critically Endangered in 2018 due to new population discoveries). Wildlife Protection Act (1972): Listed under Schedule I (highest legal protection in India). CITES: Appendix I. Source: The Times of India Amondawa Tribe Category: Society Context: The Amondawa tribe in Brazil’s Amazon lives without clocks, calendars, or numerical age, organising life by natural cycles and identity changes, as revealed by researchers. About Amondawa Tribe: Location: They are an indigenous community living deep inside Brazil’s Amazon rainforest. First contact: They were first contacted by the outside world in 1986. Size of community: They are a small community of approximately 150 individuals who sustain themselves through traditional hunting, fishing, and small-scale farming (manioc and maize). Uniqueness: They live without any concept of time as understood by modern civilisation. They have no linguistic or cultural equivalent for words such as “time”, “week”, “month” or “year”. Event-based living: They do not view time as a separate “container” that events happen in; instead, they organize life around natural cycles (day/night, rainy/dry seasons) and sequential events. No numerical age: They do not track birthdays or use numbers to calculate age. Instead, individuals change their names at different life stages to reflect their evolving social identity. Limited number system: Their native counting system typically only goes up to four. Linguistic relativity: This serves as a prime example of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, suggesting that the language one speaks influences how they perceive reality. Threats to culture: The tribe faces modern challenges such as deforestation, exposure to outside diseases, and potential cultural erosion as younger generations learn Portuguese and adopt modern concepts like calendars for administrative purposes. Comparison with other tribes: Unlike the Jarwa or Sentinelese of India, who are relatively isolated, the Amondawa are increasingly interacting with government systems for identity documents. Source: The Times of India Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) Category: Science and Technology Context: CERT-In and the Satcom Industry Association of India (SIA-India) have jointly released comprehensive guidelines for cyber security across the country’s space ecosystem. About Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In): Nature: It is the national nodal agency for responding to computer security incidents as and when they occur. Nodal ministry: It is a functional organisation of the Ministry of Information & Electronics Technology, Government of India. Objective: It primarily aims to secure Indian cyberspace. The constituency of CERT-In is the Indian cyber community. Establishment: CERT-In has been operational since January 2004.  Legal Mandate: It has been designated as the national agency under Section 70B of the Information Technology Act, 2000. Focus areas: Collection, analysis, and dissemination of information on cyber incidents. Forecasts and alerts of cybersecurity incidents. Emergency measures for handling cybersecurity incidents. Coordination of cyber incident response activities. Issue guidelines, advisories, vulnerability notes, and white papers relating to information security practices, procedures, prevention, response, and reporting of cyber incidents. Such other functions relating to cyber security as may be prescribed. Powers: To perform these functions, CERT-In is empowered to call for information and issue directions to service providers, intermediaries, data centres, body corporates, and any other person.  Services: CERT-In provides services to organizations in the Government, Public, and Private sectors. In addition, CERT-In provides services to individuals and home users as well. Collaboration: CERT-In collaborates with international counterparts to share information regarding emerging threats, vulnerabilities, and malware. Operation: CERT-In creates awareness on security issues through dissemination of information on its website (https://www.cert-in.org.in) and operates a 24×7 incidence response help desk.  Review committee: To ensure effective governance, a Review Committee oversees CERT-In’s operations. This committee includes but is not limited to representatives from various government ministries, such as: Ministry of Law and Justice Department of Telecommunications Ministry of Home Affairs Group Coordinator for Cyber Law and e-Security Source: DD News