Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC) Category: Polity and Governance Context: Recently, Union Minister of Health and Family Welfare reviewed the progress of Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC), underscoring its vital role in pharmacovigilance. About Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC): Nodal ministry: It is an autonomous Institution of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India. Objective: It is created to set standards of drugs in the country. Its basic function is to regularly update the standards of drugs commonly required for treatment of diseases prevailing in this region. Organizational Structure: The Secretary of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is the chairperson of IPC. It has a three-tier structure comprising a General Body, a Governing Body, and a Scientific Body. Pharmacovigilance: IPC acts as the National Coordination Centre (NCC) for the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), monitoring adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Materiovigilance: It operates the Materiovigilance Programme of India (MvPI) to track safety issues related to medical devices. Reference Substances: It provides certified reference substances used as analytical standards for drug testing.  Major focus areas: It promotes rational use of generic medicines by publishing National Formulary of India. It prescribes standards for identity, purity and strength of drugs essentially required from the health care perspective of human beings and animals. It also provides IP Reference Substances (IPRS) which act as a fingerprint for identification of an article under test and its purity as prescribed in IP. Official Publications: Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP): The official book of standards for drugs in India, having legal status under the Second Schedule of the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940. National Formulary of India (NFI): A guide to promote the rational and safe use of medicines. Source: DD News INS Vaghsheer Category: Defence and Security Context: Recently, President Droupadi Murmu undertook a sortie onboard Indian Navy’s frontline submarine INS Vaghsheer on the Western seaboard. About INS Vaghsheer: Nature: It is the sixth submarine of the first batch of six Kalvari-class, or Scorpene-class, submarines ordered by the Indian Navy under Project-75. Nomenclature: It is named after the sandfish, a deadly deep-sea predator of the Indian Ocean.  Commissioning: It was officially commissioned into the Indian Navy in January 2025. It now joins its sister vessels INS Kalvari, INS Khanderi, INS Karanj, INS Vela, and INS Vagir, which were commissioned, respectively, in December 2017, September 2019, March 2021, November 2021, and January 2023. Construction: These submarines have been completely built by Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL) through French technology transfer. Suited for warfare: Armed with torpedoes, anti-ship missiles, and mine-laying capabilities, it excels in anti-surface and anti-submarine warfare, intelligence gathering, and surveillance. Stealth capability: It features advanced acoustic absorption techniques, low radiated noise levels, and a hydro-dynamically optimized shape, making it one of the quietest submarines globally. Weaponry: It is armed with exocet anti-ship missiles, heavy-weight torpedoes, and naval mines. It is designed for sea denial and access denial missions. Endurance: It is capable of operating for up to 50 days at sea and reaching speeds of 20 knots when submerged. Accommodation: It can accommodate 8 officers and 35 sailors and is fitted with an anti-torpedo countermeasure system. Modernization: It is equipped with indigenously developed systems like the Ku-Band SATCOM (Rukmini) and an internal communication network. Source: The Economic Times Narasapuram Lace Craft Category: History and Culture Context: Recently, Prime Minister Narendra Modi praised the lace products made by self-help groups in Narsapuram of West Godavari district during his “Man-Ki-Baat.” About Narasapuram Lace Craft: Location: This craft is associated with Narsapur, which is situated on the bank of Godavari River in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Origin: It was introduced in 1844 by a Scottish missionary, Macrae, and his wife. History: It is believed that the women of the farming community of this region started creating highly attractive artefacts from colourful lace, about 150 years ago. Resilience: The craft has survived the Indian famine (1899) and the Great Depression (1929). By the early 1900s, above 2,000 women were involved in the craft in the Godavari region.  Significance: It was recognized with the Geographical Indication tag in 2024. Raw materials: It primarily uses fine cotton threads in various thicknesses and colours. Artisans also incorporate silk, rayon, or synthetic threads for decorative pieces, with beads and sequins added to enhance export-quality designs. Technique: Artisans use crochet needles and fine cotton thread to create intricate floral, geometric, and paisley patterns. Tools: The main tool is the crochet hook, available in different sizes to create diverse patterns and textures. Design: This craft showcases intricate floral, geometric, and paisley patterns inspired by nature and traditional motifs. Famous products: Narsapuram’s famed hand-made crochet industry produces doilies, pillow covers, cushion covers, bed spreads, table-runners, and table cloths etc. Source: Deccan Chronicle Kolleru Lake Category: Environment and Ecology Context: Kolleru Lake is now getting recognition for its delicious black dried fish that has carved a special place for itself in both domestic and international markets. About Kolleru Lake: Location: It is one of the largest freshwater lakes in India, located in the state of Andhra Pradesh. It is located in the inter-deltaic plain of rivers Krishna and Godavari near the city of Eluru and serves as a natural flood-balancing reservoir for these two rivers.  Other names: This lake is also known as the “Peerless Fisherman”s Paradise and Bird Heaven”. Area: It spreads over an area of about 308 sq. km. and expands up to 954 sq.km. at the highest flood level.  Uniqueness: It is one of India’s largest natural freshwater lakes. It is also characterized as the largest shallow freshwater lake in Asia. Associated rivers: It is a shallow lake and it receives water from four rivers, namely Budameru, Ramileru, Tammileru, and Errakalva, and 18 drains.  Outlet: This lake empties its water into the Bay of Bengal through a single outlet called ‘upputera’. Significance: The lake was declared as a wildlife sanctuary in November 1999. It was also designated as a wetland of international importance in November 2002 under the International Ramsar Convention.  Important for migratory birds: It supports over 20 million migratory birds annually, including grey pelicans, painted storks, and open-billed storks. It is a haven for species migrating from Siberia, Central Asia, and the Himalayas, making it one of India’s richest avian habitats. Economic importance: The lake is deeply intertwined with local livelihoods, sustaining thousands who depend on fishing, duck farming, and paddy cultivation. Source: ETV Bharat Plasser’s Quick Relaying System (PQRS) Category: Science and Technology Context: The Alipurduar Division of the Northeast Frontier Railway has recorded its highest-ever single-day output of 1,033 track metres using Plasser’s Quick Relaying System (PQRS). About Plasser’s Quick Relaying System (PQRS): Nature: It is a modern semi-mechanized system automatic machine used for quick railway track replacement. Objective: It aims to speed up track renewal while minimizing traffic disruption, enhancing safety, reliability, and maintenance efficiency. Composition: It consists of self-propelled cranes which move on an auxiliary track of 3400 mm gauge having the same centre line as that of track to be relayed. These portal cranes are capable of self-loading and unloading from BFRs (Bogie Flat Wagons). Lifting capacity: Newer models can lift up to 9 tonnes, allowing them to handle 13-meter-long Pre-stressed Concrete (PRC) sleeper panels. Uses: The system is widely used for new track construction as well as the modernisation of existing track infrastructure. Significance: It helps longer track lengths to be renewed within shorter traffic blocks. Further, it is cost effective, as it reduces manual labour and lifecycle maintenance costs. Operational Sequence: New panels are prefabricated at a Base Depot. Old panels are lifted and transferred directly to BFRs. New panels are laid using the portal cranes. Source: DD News (MAINS Focus) Inclusive Growth: From Social Justice to Economic Strategy (GS Paper III – Inclusive growth and issues arising from it)   Context (Introduction) Recent global legal and market developments show that inclusion, particularly of LGBTQIA+ communities, is no longer just a rights-based issue but a business and economic imperative, influencing consumer behaviour, talent retention and long-term corporate competitiveness.   Inclusive Growth: Core Idea and Relevance Definition: Inclusive growth refers to economic growth that creates opportunities for all sections of society and ensures equitable access to employment, markets, resources and public services. Economic Logic: Growth that excludes segments of the population underutilises human capital, lowers aggregate productivity and weakens long-term demand. Indian Context: Persistent inequalities based on gender, caste, region and identity reduce labour force participation and skill utilisation, constraining India’s demographic dividend. Market Dimension: Inclusion expands consumer bases, strengthens trust in institutions and improves workforce retention and innovation capacity. Global Evidence: International studies show that economies with lower discrimination levels record higher productivity growth and better human capital outcomes.   Challenges to Inclusive Growth in India Low Labour Force Participation: Women’s LFPR remains structurally low, and marginalised groups face informalisation and precarious employment. Social Exclusion Costs: Discrimination leads to health losses, lower educational attainment and reduced lifetime earnings. Skill and Opportunity Gaps: Unequal access to quality education, skilling and networks limits upward mobility. Regional Inequalities: Growth remains concentrated in a few States and urban centres, leaving aspirational districts behind. Policy–Practice Gap: Constitutional equality often does not translate into workplace inclusion or market access. Informality Dominance: Over 80% of employment remains informal, limiting social security and productivity gains.   Why Inclusion Drives Growth  Higher Workforce Participation: Inclusion brings more people into productive employment, raising potential output. Productivity Gains: Diverse teams and inclusive workplaces show better problem-solving and innovation outcomes. Demand Expansion: Inclusion enlarges consumer markets and stabilises consumption-led growth. Human Capital Returns: Reduced discrimination improves health, education and skill outcomes. Business Competitiveness: Firms with inclusive policies attract talent and retain skilled workers. Macroeconomic Stability: Broad-based growth reduces social tensions and policy uncertainty.   Way Forward: Making Growth Truly Inclusive Policy Integration: Mainstream inclusion across economic, labour, education and industrial policies. Labour Market Reforms: Promote formalisation, equal pay, safe workplaces and non-discriminatory hiring. Human Capital Investment: Target marginalised groups through education, skilling and digital access. Private Sector Role: Encourage inclusive corporate practices through ESG norms and disclosure frameworks. Data-Driven Governance: Use disaggregated data to design targeted interventions and track outcomes. Social Infrastructure: Strengthen healthcare, childcare, transport and housing to enable participation.   Conclusion Inclusive growth is not redistribution after growth, but growth itself. Economies that integrate social inclusion into markets, workplaces and institutions achieve higher productivity, resilience and legitimacy. For India, inclusion is essential to fully realise its demographic and economic potential.   Mains Question “Inclusive growth is both a moral necessity and an economic imperative.” Discuss the statement in the context of India’s development trajectory. (250 words, 15 marks) Source: The Hindu India’s Clean Energy Transition: Opportunities, Constraints and the Way Forward (GS Paper III – Infrastructure, Energy, Inclusive and Sustainable Growth)   Context (Introduction) India’s clean energy push is central to its climate commitments, energy security and growth strategy. With rising electricity demand, import dependence on fossil fuels and global climate pressures, renewables and green hydrogen are seen as pillars of a long-term transition. Recent investment and capacity trends signal promise, but systemic bottlenecks threaten momentum.   Current Status of India’s Clean Energy Sector Strong Investment Momentum: Clean energy attracted $3.4 billion FDI in the first nine months of FY2025, accounting for over 80% of total power sector inflows, reflecting investor confidence in India’s scale and policy intent. Globally Competitive Tariffs: Reverse auctions have pushed solar and wind tariffs to historic lows, making renewables among the cheapest electricity sources in India, supporting affordability and industrial competitiveness. Ambitious Capacity Expansion: India is progressing towards its 500 GW non-fossil capacity target by 2030, backed by large-scale solar parks and hybrid renewable projects. Green Hydrogen Push: The National Green Hydrogen Mission targets 5 million metric tonnes annually by 2030, aligned with decarbonisation of steel, fertilisers and refining. Manufacturing Ecosystem Developing: Domestic solar module and cell manufacturing is expanding under PLI schemes, but remains partially dependent on imports, especially upstream components.   Key Challenges and Structural Constraints DISCOM Financial Stress: Persistent unpaid dues and weak balance sheets of power distribution companies undermine payment security, increasing counterparty risk for developers. Contractual Uncertainty: Post-auction attempts by some States to renegotiate tariffs weaken contract sanctity, raising sovereign and regulatory risk perceptions. Transmission Bottlenecks: Around 60 GW of renewable capacity is stranded due to inadequate transmission infrastructure, preventing evacuation of clean power. Curtailment Risk: Renewable generators face frequent curtailment without compensation, complicating revenue forecasting and increasing financing costs. High Cost of Capital: Renewable financing costs in India are nearly 80% higher than in advanced economies, driven by grid, payment and policy risks. Green Hydrogen Economics: Current green hydrogen costs ($4.1–$5/kg) are significantly higher than grey hydrogen, with viability dependent on subsidies, mandates or carbon pricing.   Sector-Specific Challenges Demand Uncertainty: Industries hesitate to retrofit without assured supply and price stability. Supply-Side Risk: Producers are reluctant to invest without long-term offtake guarantees. Infrastructure Gaps: Storage, transport pipelines and end-use systems are underdeveloped, requiring capital beyond production facilities. Policy Coordination Needs: Hydrogen requires alignment across power, industry, transport and climate policy, which remains fragmented.   Way Forward:  Strengthen Contractual Sanctity: Ensure enforceability of power purchase agreements to restore investor confidence and reduce risk premiums. Reform DISCOM Finances: Expand payment security mechanisms, escrow systems and direct benefit reforms to stabilise revenue flows. Accelerate Grid Expansion: Synchronise renewable capacity addition with transmission build-out through proactive planning and faster clearances. Compensation for Curtailment: Introduce transparent curtailment frameworks with compensation norms to lower financing uncertainty. Deepen Manufacturing Integration: Enforce domestic content rules consistently and support upstream components to reduce import dependence. Create Green Hydrogen Demand: Use blending mandates, long-term offtake contracts, and carbon pricing to overcome the demand–supply deadlock.   Conclusion India’s clean energy transition is no longer constrained by ambition or demand, but by execution and system design. Resolving grid, financial and contractual bottlenecks is as critical as adding capacity. If these reforms align with realistic hydrogen timelines and industrial demand creation, India can emerge as a global model for managing a complex, large-scale energy transition.   Mains Question “India’s clean energy transition faces fewer technological constraints than institutional and financial ones.” Discuss with reference to renewables and green hydrogen. (250 words, 15 marks)   Source: Indian Express    

Archives (PRELIMS  Focus) Lantana Camara Category: Environment and Ecology Context: A fragrant invasive weed, Lantana camara, is spreading worldwide, overrunning millions of hectares across tropical and subtropical, and warm temperate regions. About Lantana Camara: Taxonomy: It is an annual or perennial, small, broadleaf evergreen shrub in the verbena family. Nature: It is an invasive alien plant species and an exotic weed that aggressively proliferates and forms a dense mesh of bushes. Origin: It is native to the tropical and sub-tropical regions of Central and South America. Introduction in India: It was first introduced in India in the early 18th century as an ornamental plant by the British and since then, it has invaded almost all the tropical areas across the country. Uses: Its timber is used for making furniture and also as fuelwood, etc. Its biomass can be used to produce organic compost and vermicompost, which will be better for organic farming. Status: It is listed by the IUCN as one of the top 100 worst invasive species globally. Growth: Its roots dig deep into the soil and spread wide in search of water and nutrients. Adverse impacts: Allelopathy: The plant releases chemicals into the soil that inhibit the growth and survival of neighbouring native vegetation. Ecosystem Disruption: It forms dense, impenetrable thickets that block natural light, preventing native forest regeneration and altering the movement of wildlife, such as the Asian elephant. Toxicity: Its leaves and berries contain Lantadenes (pentacyclic triterpenes), which are toxic to livestock and wild herbivores, causing liver damage and photosensitivity. Affected Areas in India: It has invaded over 40% of India’s tiger range. Heavily impacted regions include the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Western Ghats), Shivalik Hills, and the Aravallis. Source: The Hindu Santhali Language Category: History and Culture Context: Recently, President Droupadi Murmu released the Constitution of India in the Santhali language at a function held at the Rashtrapati Bhavan. About Santhali Language: Linguistic Group: It belongs to the Austroasiatic language family (Munda branch), making it distinct from Indo-Aryan and Dravidian families. Linkage: It is closely related to other Munda languages, such as Ho, Mundari, and Korku.  Nature: These languages share common features such as their agglutinative nature (where words are formed by stringing together smaller units of meaning) and their use of tones. Constitutional status: It was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution through the 92nd Amendment Act, 2003. Geographic Reach: It is spoken mainly in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, and Bihar. It also has speakers in Bangladesh, and Nepal. Script: Santhali uses the Ol Chiki script, a writing system that was developed in 1925 by Pandit Raghunath Murmu, a Santhal scholar and writer. Speakers: In India, it is spoken by an estimated 7 million people, according to recent census data. Significance: The language is central to the identity of the Santhal tribe, famous for the Santhal Hul (1855–56) rebellion led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu. Santhali has a unique and rich tradition, with its own script and oral literature, reflecting the culture and beliefs of the Santhal tribe. Source: The Hindu Rabies Category: Science and Technology Context: According to a recent study, of the 59,000 rabies-mediated human deaths in the world every year, India represents a third, around 20,000, and more than any other country. About Rabies: Nature: Rabies is a vaccine-preventable, zoonotic, viral disease. Pathogen: It is a viral zoonotic disease caused by an RNA virus of the Lyssavirus genus (family Rhabdoviridae).  Vulnerable species: It infects mammals, including dogs, cats, livestock and wildlife. Significance: It is one of the neglected tropical diseases (NTD) that predominantly affects already marginalized, poor, and vulnerable populations. Transmission: It spreads to people and animals via saliva, usually through bites, scratches, or direct contact with mucosa (e.g. eyes, mouth, or open wounds). Forms: Clinically, it has two forms:  Furious rabies: It is characterized by hyperactivity and hallucinations. Paralytic rabies: It is characterized by paralysis and coma. Incubation period: The incubation period for rabies is typically 2–3 months but may vary from one week to one year. Symptoms: Initial symptoms include generic signs like fever, pain, and unusual or unexplained tingling, pricking, or burning sensations at the wound site. As the virus moves to the central nervous system, progressive and fatal inflammation of the brain and spinal cord develops.  Fatality: Once the virus infects the central nervous system and clinical symptoms appear, rabies is fatal in 100% of cases. Prevention: Vaccinating dogs, including puppies, is the most cost-effective strategy for preventing rabies in people because it stops the transmission at its source. Source: The Hindu Ho Tribe Category: Society Context: The Adivasi Ho Samaj Yuva Mahasabha (AHSYM) recently called upon tribal people not to celebrate picnics and urged them to pay tribute to the martyrs from the community. About Ho Tribe: Ethic group: The Ho, or Kolha, people are an Austroasiatic Munda ethnic group of India. Other names: They call themselves the Ho, Hodoko, and Horo, which mean ‘human’ in their own language. Distribution: They are mostly concentrated in the Kolhan region of Jharkhand and Odisha, where they constitute around 10.7% and 7.3% of the total Scheduled Tribe population, respectively, as of 2011. Governance: The Manki-Munda System is their traditional self-governance mechanism, which remains influential today Language: Ho people speak the Ho language, an Austroasiatic language closely related to Mundari. Occupation: The majority of the Ho tribe is involved in agriculture, either as landowners or labourers, while others are engaged in mining. Attire: The men and women of this community wear very minimal dress. The women prefer to wear tribal jewelleries. Status of women: They have higher status among the Ho than they do in most tribes. Culture: Dance is very important in Ho culture. Most villages have a dedicated dancing ground, called akhra, usually consisting of a cleared space of hard ground under a spreading tree. Traditional Ho music incorporates native instruments, including a dama (drum), dholak, dumeng (mandar), and the rutu (flute). Religion: The majority of the Ho have their own nature-based religion (Sarnaism) that doesn’t fit in with Hinduism. They have a village priest called a deuri. Source: Hindustan Times Kanger Valley National Park Category: Geography Context: The Chhattisgarh government has stepped up efforts to secure the famed Kanger Valley National Park, the official status of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. About Kanger Valley National Park: Location: It is located in Jagdalpur in the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh state. Nomenclature: It derives its name from the Kanger River, which flows centrally from the Northwest to the Southeast direction. The Kanger River is a tributary of the Kolab River, which ultimately joins the Godavari River. Establishment: It was declared a National Park in July 1982, under the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. Area: The total area of the National Park is 200 sq.km.  Topography: It features low flatlands, gentle slopes, steep inclines, plateaus, deep gorges, valleys, and winding stream courses. Major attractions: Tirathgarh Falls, which originates from the Kanger River, presents an enchanting view falling from a height of 150 feet. The national park has more than 15 limestone caves, including the famous Kotumsar, Kailash, and Dandak caves. Flora: Blend of mixed moist deciduous type of forests with the predominance of Sal, teak, and bamboo. Fauna: Major wild animals include tigers, mouse deer, leopards, wildcat, sambar, chital, barking deer, langurs, jackals, rhesus macaque, flying squirrel, etc. The aerial fauna at the park consists of common hill myna, red jungle fowl, spotted owlet, racket-tailed drongos, parrots, etc. Source: Deccan Chronicle (MAINS Focus) India’s R&D Deficit: The Missing Link in the Vision of Viksit Bharat (UPSC GS Paper III – Science & Technology, Research & Development, Innovation Ecosystem)   Context (Introduction) Despite its demographic strength and economic scale, India’s ambition to emerge as a global power is constrained by chronic underinvestment in research and development, weak private-sector participation, and deep structural gaps in its innovation ecosystem.   Current Status Talent–Output Mismatch: India accounts for about 17.5% of the global population, yet contributes only around 3% of global research output, reflecting poor conversion of human capital into knowledge creation. Persistently Low R&D Spending: India’s Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD) has stagnated at 0.6–0.7% of GDP, far below innovation-driven economies such as the U.S. (~3.5%), China (~2.4%) and Israel (>5%). Patent Growth without Depth: India ranked 6th globally in patent filings (2023), but its share of global applications remains under 2%, and resident patents per million population remain low, indicating shallow innovation intensity. Corporate R&D Gap: India’s total national R&D expenditure is lower than the R&D spending of some global firms; a single multinational like Huawei spends more annually on R&D than India’s combined public–private outlay. Incremental, Not Disruptive Innovation: Much of India’s research output focuses on incremental improvements rather than frontier technologies. Competitiveness Risk: Low R&D intensity weakens India’s position in strategic areas such as semiconductors, AI, quantum technologies and advanced materials.   Structural Weaknesses in the Innovation Ecosystem Government-Dominated Funding Model: Nearly two-thirds of India’s R&D funding comes from the government, unlike advanced economies where private industry leads innovation spending. Risk-Averse Private Sector: Indian firms prefer technology imports and licensing over long-gestation, high-risk research investments. Academia–Industry Disconnect: Universities and industry operate largely in silos, with limited collaboration, technology transfer or commercialisation. Brain Drain of High-End Talent: Top researchers and PhDs migrate abroad due to better infrastructure, funding certainty and career incentives. Bureaucratic Frictions: Slow approvals, fragmented funding channels and procedural rigidity hinder large-scale, mission-oriented research. Weak Intellectual Property Ecosystem: Patent enforcement, monetisation and incentives for inventors remain underdeveloped.   Why the R&D Deficit Matters for India’s Development Low Productivity Growth: Without strong R&D, manufacturing and services struggle to move up global value chains. Strategic Dependence: Reliance on imported technologies undermines economic sovereignty and national security. Missed Demographic Dividend: A large skilled workforce without research opportunities leads to underemployment or emigration. Uneven Industrial Upgradation: Low R&D explains why many Indian firms rely on labour cost advantages rather than technology leadership. Innovation-Led Growth Foregone: Historical evidence shows countries with sustained R&D investment achieve faster income and productivity growth. Risk to Viksit Bharat Vision: A transition to a developed economy is unlikely without a strong domestic innovation base.   Government Efforts to Strengthen R&D Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF): The establishment of ANRF marks a structural shift to coordinate, fund and promote research across disciplines, universities and national laboratories, with an emphasis on outcome-oriented research. ₹1 Lakh Crore Research, Development and Innovation (RDI) Fund: The RDI Fund aims to crowd in private investment, support long-term financing for deep-tech research, and de-risk innovation in frontier areas. Mission-Oriented Technology Programmes: Focused initiatives in semiconductors, artificial intelligence, green energy and quantum technologies signal strategic intent. Higher Education Reforms: Steps are underway to strengthen research universities, doctoral training and interdisciplinary research capacity. Startup and Innovation Ecosystem: Expansion of incubators, startups and innovation hubs has improved early-stage innovation, though deep-tech funding remains limited. Patent System Improvements: Digitalisation and faster processing have improved patent filings, though quality and commercialisation gaps persist.   Way Forward:  Raise R&D Spending to at Least 2% of GDP: Experts argue this threshold is essential within the next 5–7 years to sustain innovation-led growth. Rebalance Public–Private Roles: Private sector contribution should rise to 50% or more of total R&D spending, supported by tax incentives and co-funding. Adopt Mission-Based Research Strategy: Concentrate resources on national missions in strategic domains with long-term, uninterrupted funding. Transform Universities into Research Hubs: Increase PhD funding, attract global faculty, and invest in world-class laboratory infrastructure. Bridge Academia–Industry Divide: Institutionalise industry-sponsored research chairs, joint labs, incubation centres and technology transfer offices. Strengthen IP and Commercialisation: Improve patent enforcement, monetisation frameworks and financial incentives for inventors.   Conclusion India possesses the talent and ambition to become a global innovation leader, but its chronic R&D deficit remains a binding constraint. Unless funding, governance and private-sector participation scale up decisively in the next decade, the promise of Viksit Bharat risks remaining aspirational beyond 2047.   Mains Question India’s low investment in research and development has emerged as a major constraint on its technological and economic ambitions. Analyse the structural causes of this deficit and evaluate recent government initiatives to address it.(250 words, 15 marks) Source: The Hindu India–Iran Relations: Civilisational Continuity and Contemporary Strategic Relevance (UPSC GS Paper II – International Relations: Bilateral Relations, Energy Security, Connectivity, West Asia)   Context (Introduction) India–Iran relations rest on one of Asia’s oldest civilisational linkages and are now being reshaped by present-day imperatives of energy security, regional connectivity, counterterrorism, and the demands of a multipolar global order.   Historical and Civilisational Ties Shared Indo-Iranian Origins: Linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the Avesta point to a common Indo-Iranian civilisational origin, creating deep-rooted cultural familiarity and long-term trust. Persian Legacy in India: Persian served as the official administrative and court language in large parts of India from the Delhi Sultanate through the Mughal period (13th–19th centuries), shaping diplomacy, law and literature. Indo-Persian Literary Synthesis: India became a major centre of Persian literary production, giving rise to Sabk-e-Hendi (Indian style of Persian poetry), with figures such as Bedil Dehlavi still widely read in Iran today. Cultural Exchange beyond Politics: Despite colonial rule and later geopolitical shifts, Persian studies, manuscripts and scholarly exchanges continued in Indian institutions, preserving cultural continuity. Civilisational Soft Power: These shared cultural memories have ensured that bilateral ties were never marked by historical hostility, unlike many relationships in West Asia. Foundation for Strategic Trust: This historical depth has enabled sustained dialogue even during periods of sanctions and geopolitical pressure.   Current Status of India–Iran Relations Energy Relations Disrupted but Not Broken: Before renewed sanctions, Iran was among India’s top crude oil suppliers (2016–17). Imports stopped after 2019, but energy cooperation remains strategically relevant. Chabahar Port Cooperation: India operates the Shahid Beheshti terminal at Chabahar, giving it direct maritime access to Iran and onward connectivity to Afghanistan and Central Asia. Operational Proof of Utility: India used Chabahar to deliver humanitarian assistance, including wheat shipments to Afghanistan after 2021, demonstrating practical strategic value. Role in INSTC: Iran is a central node in the International North–South Transport Corridor, linking India with Russia, the Caucasus and Europe through multimodal routes. Security Convergence: Both countries oppose extremism and instability in West and South Asia, particularly emanating from Afghanistan. Limited Trade Volumes: Despite strategic alignment, bilateral trade remains modest (well below potential), constrained mainly by sanctions and financial barriers.   Strategic and Economic Potential Energy Security Partnership: Iran holds some of the world’s largest oil and gas reserves, offering India a long-term, geographically proximate energy option once constraints ease. Connectivity and Trade Advantage: The INSTC route through Iran is significantly shorter and cheaper than traditional sea routes via the Suez Canal, improving India’s Eurasian trade competitiveness. Regional Balancing Role: India–Iran cooperation supports strategic autonomy by reducing overdependence on any single regional bloc. Technology and Knowledge Cooperation: India’s strengths in IT and digital services complement Iran’s advances in medical sciences and nanotechnology. Economic Diversification Beyond Oil: Expanding cooperation in pharmaceuticals, healthcare, education and research can stabilise ties against energy market volatility. Multipolar World Alignment: Both countries support a multipolar order that allows greater strategic flexibility and regional decision-making.   Key Challenges and Constraints Third-Party Sanctions: U.S. sanctions have constrained oil trade, shipping insurance, banking channels and investment flows. Financial Transaction Barriers: Restrictions on dollar settlements and global banking access limit scalability of bilateral trade. Underdeveloped Connectivity Infrastructure: Rail and logistics links connecting Chabahar fully to the INSTC network are still incomplete. Geopolitical Volatility in West Asia: Regional conflicts raise uncertainty for long-term economic and infrastructure projects. Trade Below Potential: Bilateral trade remains far below what two large economies with complementary strengths could achieve. Diplomatic Balancing for India: India must carefully manage its Iran ties alongside its relations with the U.S., Israel and Gulf partners.   Way Forward Strengthen Connectivity Projects: Fast-track rail and logistics infrastructure linking Chabahar to Central Asia and the INSTC. Innovative Financial Mechanisms: Expand local currency trade, barter arrangements and alternative settlement systems to bypass external constraints. Phased Energy Engagement: Explore flexible, sanction-compliant energy cooperation models, including petrochemicals and LNG. Diversify Economic Cooperation: Prioritise IT, healthcare, pharmaceuticals, education and research collaborations. Institutionalise Security Dialogue: Regular consultations on Afghanistan and counterterrorism can stabilise shared neighbourhoods. Leverage Civilisational Diplomacy: Cultural exchanges, academic cooperation and people-to-people ties should reinforce strategic engagement.   Conclusion India–Iran relations combine rare civilisational continuity with concrete contemporary relevance. If connectivity, economic diversification and pragmatic diplomacy are pursued together, the partnership can enhance India’s strategic autonomy and contribute meaningfully to stability in West Asia and Eurasia.   Mains Question Q. India–Iran relations are anchored in deep civilisational ties but shaped today by strategic imperatives. Analyse the current state of the relationship, its potential, and the challenges that must be addressed to realise its full scope. (250 words, 15 marks)    

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