rchives
(PRELIMS Focus)
Money laundering
Category: POLITY
Context: Increasing problem of money laundering in India.
Rising Cases: Since 2015, 5,892 cases under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) have been reported, but only 15 convictions have occurred. This indicates that investigations are not progressing efficiently, and the government has struggled to curb financial crimes.
Definition: Money laundering refers to the process of disguising illicitly obtained money through financial systems to make it appear legitimate. It is often done by organized crime syndicates.
Challenges in Enforcement: The lack of convictions and slow enforcement suggest issues with the legal framework. The government has struggled to implement stringent measures, with some areas being overlooked, such as the proper registration of cases and investigations into suspicious financial activities.
Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA): India has signed DTAA with over 80 countries, which helps track illicit financial flows, although it has not fully addressed money laundering concerns. The framework needs stronger enforcement, particularly in combating terror financing and other financial crimes.
Court Ruling: A 2022 ruling emphasized that property registration under Section 3 of PMLA is necessary for the prosecution of money laundering cases.
Learning Corner:
Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002
The Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) was enacted by the Government of India in 2002 to combat money laundering and related crimes. The primary objective of the PMLA is to prevent money laundering, track illicit financial flows, and seize assets acquired through illegal means.
Key Provisions:
Money Laundering Definition: The act defines money laundering as the process of concealing the origins of illegally obtained money, typically through complex financial transactions to make it appear legitimate.
Enforcement Directorate (ED): The Enforcement Directorate, a government agency, is tasked with investigating offenses related to money laundering under PMLA. It can attach properties derived from proceeds of crime.
Attachment and Confiscation of Property: The PMLA allows authorities to attach properties linked to criminal activities and, after investigation, confiscate them if the accused is found guilty of money laundering.
Proceeds of Crime: The act defines ‘proceeds of crime’ as any property derived from criminal activities, such as corruption, tax evasion, drug trafficking, and terrorism financing.
Prevention and Investigation: PMLA mandates financial institutions and professionals to report suspicious transactions, which aids in the prevention of laundering activities. The act empowers investigative agencies to conduct searches, seize assets, and arrest individuals involved in money laundering.
Punishment: Money laundering is a serious offense, with penalties including imprisonment for up to seven years and substantial fines. If proven, the maximum punishment can be extended based on the severity of the crime.
Recent Amendments:
The act was amended in 2019 to widen the scope of money laundering offenses and enhance the powers of investigating agencies. These amendments include the provision of faster attachment of properties and stricter punishments for economic offenses.
Significance:
PMLA plays a crucial role in strengthening India’s legal framework to tackle financial crimes and bolster the global fight against money laundering. It helps enhance transparency, trace illicit financial flows, and maintain the integrity of the financial system.
Source: THE HINDU
Necropolitics
Category: MISC
Context : Keyword- Can be directly asked in prelims
Key points include:
Necropolitics and Biopolitics: The theory, coined by Achille Mbembe, builds on Michel Foucault’s biopolitics, focusing on how states manage populations through surveillance, control, and exclusion. Biopolitics concerns itself with preserving life, while necropolitics focuses on deciding who is allowed to live and who is abandoned, neglected, or sacrificed.
The State of Exception: Drawing on Giorgio Agamben’s work, the article discusses how states use exceptional laws to protect life in certain spaces while excluding others. This creates zones where death is treated as normal, and people are left to suffer or die in conditions of neglect.
The Living Dead: Mbembe introduces the concept of the “living dead” to describe those who are biologically alive but deprived of social, political, and moral recognition. This was seen during the COVID-19 lockdown when migrant workers were left without food, shelter, or transportation and many died from neglect.
Gaza as a Case Study: The article points to the situation in Gaza, where civilians face violence and systematic neglect. The deaths of children and civilians are framed as collateral damage in the name of national security.
In Everyday Life: Necropolitics also manifests in everyday life, particularly in regions with ongoing violence or war. Disposability of life is evident in the treatment of marginalized communities and individuals subjected to violence, state neglect, or abandoned in disaster zones.
Source: THE HINDU
Microplastics
Category: ENVIRONMENT
Context: Microplastics and its impact on brain.
Microplastics—tiny plastic particles, often smaller than 5mm—are now being found inside human brains, raising concerns about their potential effects on brain health.
How Do Microplastics Reach the Brain?
Microplastics enter the body through food, water, air, and medical devices.
Studies show these particles can cross the blood-brain barrier, accumulating in brain tissue, especially in fat-rich areas like the myelin sheath around neurons.
What Are Microplastics Doing to Our Brains?
Bioaccumulation and Rising Exposure
Microplastic levels in the brain have increased significantly in recent years, with concentrations higher than in other organs like the liver or kidney.
Autopsies reveal plastic fragments, even the size of a small spoon, within the brain.
Disruption of Brain Structure and Function
Microplastics trigger neuroinflammation, activate immune cells, block blood vessels, and disrupt neuronal signaling.
Animal studies link exposure to cognitive impairments like memory loss, reduced movement, and motor coordination issues. Changes in proteins related to neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, have also been observed.
Immune and Vascular Effects
Microplastics can clog small blood vessels in the brain, disrupting blood flow and causing potential damage. Some effects appear to recover over time, but others persist.
Potential for Neurodegeneration
Microplastics may cause cellular stress, inflammation, and neuronal death, possibly contributing to or exacerbating neurodegenerative diseases like dementia.
Are Microplastics the Cause of Diseases?
While there is no proven link between microplastics and specific diseases, higher levels of microplastics in the brain correlate with cognitive impairments. They may also amplify the effects of other brain injuries, like stroke, and worsen neuroinflammation.
Current Knowledge Gaps and Concerns
Most research is based on animal models and lab studies, with limited long-term human data available. Despite this, the growing presence of microplastics in the brain calls for further investigation.
Key Takeaways
Microplastics accumulate in the brain, potentially disrupting function, causing inflammation, and contributing to cognitive decline.
The long-term effects are still largely unknown, but early evidence suggests serious risks warranting further research.
Learning Corner:
Microplastics
Microplastics are tiny plastic particles, typically less than 5 millimeters in size, that have become a significant environmental concern due to their widespread presence and potential harmful effects on both ecosystems and human health.
Sources of Microplastics:
Primary Microplastics: These are small plastic particles deliberately manufactured for specific uses, such as in cosmetics (scrubs, exfoliants), cleaning products, or industrial applications.
Secondary Microplastics: These form from the breakdown of larger plastic items (e.g., bottles, bags, fishing nets) due to weathering, physical wear, and exposure to sunlight over time.
Environmental Impact:
Ocean Pollution: Microplastics are commonly found in oceans, posing a threat to marine life. Sea creatures mistake them for food, leading to ingestion, which can cause physical harm, malnutrition, or even death.
Biodiversity Threat: Microplastics can accumulate in the food chain, affecting biodiversity as animals that consume these particles are harmed, and toxins from plastics may enter the ecosystem.
Human Health Concerns:
Ingestion and Inhalation: Microplastics are found in water, food, and air, leading to potential human exposure. Research suggests that ingesting microplastics could have adverse health effects, though the full impact on human health is still under investigation.
Toxicity: Microplastics may absorb harmful chemicals like pesticides and heavy metals from the environment, which can be released when consumed by organisms, including humans.
Current Research and Solutions:
Detection and Removal: Efforts are underway to detect microplastics in environmental samples and develop filtration or bioremediation techniques to remove them from ecosystems.
Reduction Strategies: Governments and industries are focusing on reducing plastic waste through better waste management practices, banning single-use plastics, and promoting the use of biodegradable materials.
Conclusion:
Microplastics pose a major environmental and health challenge due to their ubiquity, persistence, and potential toxicity. Ongoing research aims to better understand their impacts and develop effective solutions to mitigate their harmful effects.
Source: THE HINDU
Alzheimer's Disease
Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Context: Current Breakthroughs and Treatments in Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)
Anti-Amyloid Antibody Therapies
Monoclonal antibodies like lecanemab (Leqembi) and donanemab (Kisunla) target amyloid-β plaques in the brain, slowing cognitive decline in early-stage Alzheimer’s by about 30%. These treatments emphasize the importance of early diagnosis and intervention.
Emerging Disease-Modifying Drugs
Over 138 novel drugs are in clinical trials, targeting various mechanisms including tau proteins, neuroinflammation, vascular health, and neurotransmitter receptors. Drugs such as semaglutide, simufilam, and trontinemab are among promising candidates.
New Therapeutic Targets
miRNA and Small Molecules: Researchers are exploring microRNAs (miRNAs) as biomarkers and therapeutic targets. These therapies could potentially treat or even cure AD, pending further trials.
Blood-Brain Barrier Protection: New drugs that protect the blood-brain barrier show promise in animal models for preventing neurodegeneration.
Diagnostics and Prevention
Blood tests for amyloid and other biomarkers offer earlier, less invasive detection, enabling preventive treatments before symptoms appear.
Multimodal Approaches
Combining drug therapies with lifestyle modifications, cognitive training, and caregiver support is recommended for optimal results.
Personalized medicine based on biomarker-driven plans is gaining traction.
What’s on the Horizon?
Vaccine Development:
Research on amyloid vaccines is underway, with the goal of stimulating the immune system to clear harmful plaques, though these are still in early stages.
Combination and Preventive Therapies:
Experts believe combination therapies targeting different Alzheimer’s pathways, started before symptoms arise, could provide the best outcomes.
Challenges:
High costs and limited insurance for treatments like lecanemab and donanemab, coupled with uncertainty over long-term benefits, remain significant barriers.
In Summary
While no cure exists, there is hope for slowing or preventing disease progression due to new therapies, diagnostics, and a promising pipeline of drugs targeting multiple disease pathways.
Early detection, precise biomarker-driven therapies, and multi-target drug development will be essential for future progress in Alzheimer’s treatment.
Learning Corner:
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)
Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurological disorder that primarily affects memory, thinking, and behavior. It is the most common cause of dementia, a general term for a decline in cognitive ability severe enough to interfere with daily life.
Key Features:
Progressive Nature: Alzheimer’s disease worsens over time, with symptoms gradually becoming more severe. It typically starts with mild memory loss and confusion, eventually leading to significant impairment in the ability to perform everyday tasks.
Memory Loss: The hallmark symptom of AD is memory loss, particularly difficulty in recalling recent events and conversations.
Cognitive Decline: Cognitive functions, such as problem-solving, decision-making, and language skills, are also affected.
Behavioral Changes: Patients may exhibit mood swings, depression, aggression, anxiety, and a decline in social interactions.
Causes and Risk Factors:
Genetics: A family history of Alzheimer’s is a significant risk factor. Certain genes, such as the APOE ε4 allele, increase the likelihood of developing the disease.
Age: The risk increases significantly with age, particularly after the age of 65.
Plaques and Tangles: The presence of amyloid-β plaques (protein deposits) and tau protein tangles in the brain are characteristic features of Alzheimer’s disease. These abnormal protein accumulations disrupt communication between brain cells and cause cell death.
Other Factors: Factors like head injuries, cardiovascular health, diabetes, and lifestyle factors (e.g., lack of physical activity, poor diet) may also contribute to the risk.
Symptoms:
Early Stage: Mild memory loss, confusion, and difficulty with planning or solving problems.
Moderate Stage: Increased memory loss, confusion about time and place, and difficulty recognizing friends and family. Some may become agitated or exhibit personality changes.
Severe Stage: Loss of the ability to communicate, complete dependence on others for daily activities, and physical decline.
Diagnosis:
Clinical Evaluation: A combination of medical history, cognitive testing, and physical examination is used for diagnosis.
Brain Imaging: MRI and PET scans can help detect structural changes in the brain, such as shrinkage in areas associated with memory and cognition.
Biomarkers: Blood tests and cerebrospinal fluid analysis are being explored as diagnostic tools to detect Alzheimer’s-related changes at earlier stages.
Treatment:
Medications: While there is no cure for Alzheimer’s, medications such as Donepezil, Rivastigmine, and Memantine may help manage symptoms by improving cognitive function and slowing disease progression.
Emerging Treatments: New therapies focusing on targeting amyloid plaques, tau proteins, and inflammation are under development, showing promise in clinical trials.
Lifestyle Changes: Managing cardiovascular health, maintaining a healthy diet, staying mentally and physically active, and creating a supportive environment can help delay the onset or slow the progression of symptoms.
Source: PIB
AGNISHODH
Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Context: General Upendra Dwivedi, Chief of the Army Staff, inaugurated AGNISHODH, the Indian Army Research Cell (IARC) at IIT Madras
Key Highlights:
Purpose and Vision: AGNISHODH is focused on bridging the gap between academic research and military applications, aiming to accelerate indigenous defense innovation. It plays a pivotal role in the Army’s transformation, particularly in the areas of modernization and technology infusion.
Focus Areas:
Additive manufacturing
Cybersecurity
Quantum computing
Wireless communication
Unmanned aerial systems (UAS)
These areas align with the Army’s strategy to prepare for fifth-generation warfare, marked by high technological integration and non-contact combat.
Integration with IIT Madras Research Park: The facility operates within the IIT Madras Research Park, collaborating with advanced centers such as the Advanced Manufacturing Technology Development Centre (AMTDC) and the Pravartak Technologies Foundation, turning lab breakthroughs into deployable defense technologies.
Strategic Partnerships: AGNISHODH collaborates with national technology missions like INDIAai and Project QuILA, and partners with the Military College of Telecommunication Engineering (MCTE), Mhow. It also builds on the success of similar research cells at IIT Delhi, IIT Kanpur, and IISc Bengaluru.
Upskilling Armed Forces: The cell aims to foster both research and the upskilling of Army personnel in cutting-edge defense technologies, contributing to a tech-empowered military workforce.
Learning corner:
Indian Army Research Cells
Indian Army Research Cells are collaborative initiatives between the Army and premier academic institutions to foster indigenous defense innovation and technology development. These cells bridge the gap between academic research and military applications, enabling rapid deployment of cutting-edge technologies.
Key Cells:
AGNISHODH (IIT Madras): Focuses on additive manufacturing, cybersecurity, quantum computing, unmanned aerial systems, and wireless communication. It aids in modernizing defense and facilitating technology infusion.
IIT Delhi: Focuses on cybersecurity, AI, and data analytics, enhancing military communications, surveillance, and data protection.
IIT Kanpur: Specializes in robotics, AI, and autonomous systems for next-gen military operations like unmanned vehicles and surveillance.
IISc Bengaluru: Works on defense materials, nanotechnology, and advanced sensors for applications such as body armor, propulsion, and threat detection.
MCTE, Mhow: Focuses on military communications, enhancing secure communication systems and encryption technologies.
Objectives:
Indigenous Development: Reducing dependency on foreign technologies.
Academic Collaboration: Turning academic research into deployable military technologies.
Technology Transition: Rapid integration of new technologies into Army operations.
These cells support India’s defense modernization and self-reliance goals, strengthening technological capabilities for modern warfare.
Source: PIB
(MAINS Focus)
Hiroshima and Nuclear Disarmament (GS Paper I – World history)
Introduction (Context)
On August 6, 1945, a nuclear bomb exploded just above Hiroshima, instantly killing at least 70,000 people. Another 70,000 died of injuries and radiation sickness before the year ended. Three days later, a second weapon exploded over Nagasaki, killing 40,000 on the day.
In the 80 years since, nuclear weapons have not been detonated again. A norm of non-use appears to have been established. But the norm of non-use is now under increasing pressure.
Why was the bomb dropped?
The primary reason for dropping the atomic bombs was to bring a swift end to World War II. By August 1945, Japan showed no signs of surrendering, and U.S. military leaders estimated that an invasion of Japan would result in significant American and Japanese casualties. President Harry Truman and his advisors believed that using the atomic bomb would force Japan to surrender unconditionally, thus avoiding a prolonged and bloody ground invasion.
Another critical factor was the geopolitical landscape at the time. The U.S. aimed to demonstrate its military might, particularly to the Soviet Union, which had just declared war on Japan.
The bombings served as a signal of American power and a way to limit Soviet influence in post-war Japan. This was particularly important as tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union were beginning to rise, setting the stage for the Cold War.
Global Nuclear order post Hiroshima
In the decades after Hiroshima, the nuclear order took shape.
After World War II and the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the world realized the need to control nuclear weapons.
The United Nations (UN) was created in 1945 to promote peace.
In 1968, countries signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) to stop the spread of nuclear weapons.
The United States, Soviet Union, Britain, France, and China became the five officially recognised nuclear powers.
Others like India, Pakistan, and North Korea built their arsenals outside this system.
Treaties to limit use of nuclear power
NPT – Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968)
It is a global treaty with three pillars:
Non-Proliferation: Prevent spread of nuclear weapons.
Disarmament: Work toward nuclear disarmament.
Peaceful Use: Promote peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
It has recognized 5 nuclear-weapon states (US, UK, France, Russia, China).
Other signatories agree not to pursue nuclear weapons.\
Signed by 191 countries (India, Pakistan, Israel, and North Korea are not signatories).
Creates a nuclear apartheid — permanent division between nuclear and non-nuclear states.
Nuclear Weapon States have modernised arsenals instead of reducing them.
CTBT – Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
Aims to ban all nuclear explosions for both military and civilian purposes.
CTBT (1996) specifically bans all nuclear explosive testing, but does not prevent possession or development of nuclear weapons.
Establishes a global monitoring system for nuclear tests.
Needs ratification by 44 specific nuclear-capable states to come into force.
India, US, China, Pakistan, North Korea, Israel, Iran, Egypt have not ratified.
TPNW – Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (2017)
First legally binding treaty that completely bans nuclear weapons, including their use, threat, development, testing, and possession.
Adopted by 122 countries; entered into force in 2021.
Symbolically powerful but none of the nuclear-weapon states have signed it.
Seeks to stigmatize and delegitimize nuclear weapons like landmines and chemical weapons.
Lack enforcement power as major powers reject it.
India supports universal nuclear disarmament, but refuses to join treaties like NPT and CTBT unless they are non-discriminatory and equitable. Advocates for a step-by-step approach under a global framework, not through biased treaties
International Court of Justice (ICJ) Opinion
In 1996, the ICJ said using nuclear weapons would generally go against humanitarian law, but it didn’t make a final judgment on legality.
This created a moral pressure to avoid using nuclear weapons, even if not legally banned.
Conclusion
The legacy of Hiroshima continues to hold profound relevance in contemporary global discourse on war, peace, and international security. Despite the passage of eight decades, the events of August 1945 serve as a stark reminder of the devastating humanitarian and ethical consequences of nuclear warfare.
As the world grapples with emerging threats, resurgent rivalries, and advances in military technology, the Hiroshima experience must inform efforts to promote disarmament, foster mutual trust, and strengthen multilateral commitments to shared security.
Mains Practice Question
Q In the current global context of rising geopolitical tensions and emerging military technologies, critically examine the relevance of the global nuclear disarmament framework. (250 words, 15 marks)
Source: Eighty years on from Hiroshima – The Hindu
Rising Concern Over Sulphur Pollution in India's Energy Sector (GS Paper III – Environment)
Introduction (Context)
The government has eased sulphur emission rules for coal power plants, which has reignited concerns about its environmental impact.
The decision aligns with the government’s focus on ensuring affordable and reliable electricity amid rising energy needs.
However, the rollback threatens to worsen air pollution, especially from SO₂ emissions, which are linked to acid rain, ecosystem damage, and respiratory illnesses.
Why India’s power plants emit more CO₂?
In India, coal accounts for more than 70 per cent of electricity generation.
The dominant type of coal produced in India is “sub bituminous”, primarily of Gondwana origin, which has low sulphur and moisture content beneficial in reducing emissions.
However, it also has less carbon and lower energy density, meaning it produces less energy per kilogram.
Hence, to produce the same amount of electricity, more coal needs to be burnt compared to higher-grade coal like anthracite. Burning more coal results in more carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions per unit of electricity.
Due to low heat value and high quartz (silica) content, Indian coal is less efficient. It also leads to the production of large amounts of ash, causing waste management and pollution challenges.
The theoretical maximum efficiency of a coal-fired power plant is 64 per cent, but even the most advanced plants globally achieve up to 45 per cent. In comparison, plants in India average about 35 per cent efficiency.
How sulphur from coal fuels air pollution?
What is Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂)?
A toxic gas released during combustion of sulphur-containing fuels (especially coal).
Forms acid rain and sulphate aerosols, and contributes to PM2.5 pollution.
Highly water-soluble; can travel hundreds of kilometres before settling.
Sources:
Coal-fired thermal plants – the primary source. (Coal contains 0.5–6 per cent sulphur, present as organic sulphur (bound to carbon) and inorganic sulphur (mainly iron pyrites, FeS₂). Notably, inorganic sulphur can be partially removed through washing and pulverising. )
Petroleum refining.
Metal smelting (e.g., copper).
Cement and chemical industries.
Rules
In the US, SO₂ is listed as a criteria pollutant under the Clean Air Act and is regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
In India, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, sets the annual average SO₂ limit of 50 µg/m³ for residential/industrial areas, and 20 µg/m³ for ecologically sensitive zones. The 24-hour average limit is 80 µg/m³ for both.
Impact of SO2 pollution
When sulphur burns, it forms SO₂ and SO₃. These gases mix with water in the air to form sulphurous acid and sulphuric acid (one of the strongest acids).\
These acids fall to the ground with rain, called acid rain. This process takes a few days, allowing SO₂ to travel hundreds of kilometres before settling.
SO₂ also forms tiny sulphate particles in the air (0.2–0.9 µm). These particles reduce visibility and enter deep into the lungs, affecting human health.
Sulphate particles (0.2–0.9 µm) penetrate deep into lungs, aggravating respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
Leaching of soil nutrients, mobilisation of toxic metals like aluminium, fish kills due to respiratory blockages from aluminium salts in gills.
Acid rain damages crops and forests by removing nutrients from the soil.
It mobilises toxic aluminium, which blocks plants from absorbing water and nutrients.
It harms freshwater ecosystems by altering water chemistry.
Control Measures
SO₂ emissions can be reduced through two broad approaches: pre-combustion control and post-combustion control.
Pre-combustion control
Pre-combustion techniques include fuel switching, fluidized bed combustion (FBC), and integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC).
Fuel switching:
It involves using or blending low-sulphur coal, which can cut SO₂ emissions by 30–90 percent, but only temporarily.
Coal washing:
Using physical, chemical, or biological methods, it removes iron pyrites (FeS₂) due to its higher density.
This can lower sulphur content by approximately 10 per cent, while reducing ash levels and improving fuel quality and boiler efficiency.
Fluidized bed combustion:
It uses crushed coal mixed with limestone in a fluidized bed; the lime reacts with SO₂ to form calcium sulfate.
FBC can remove more than 90 per cent of sulphur, operates at lower temperatures (~800°C), thereby lowering NOₓ formation, and is less sensitive to coal quality.
Integrated gasification combined cycle:
It turns coal-water slurry to clean syngas, removing particulates, mercury, and sulphur.
IGCC plants reach up to 45 per cent efficiency compared to approximately 40 per cent for conventional pulverized coal plants, and allow for CO₂ capture via deep injection.
Post-combustion control
Post-combustion control is mainly achieved through flue gas desulphurisation (FGD).
In dry FGD systems, limestone (CaCO₃) slurry is injected into flue gas to form calcium sulphite/sulphate. Lime-based slurries work better but are costlier.
In wet scrubbing, flue gas is bubbled through limestone slurry, producing gypsum as a by-product, which is used as a construction material. Scrubbers also consume large amounts of water and generate significant sludge as landfills with the consistency of toothpaste.
Regenerative SO₂ capture processes, like Wellman-Lord, generate economically important byproducts like sulphuric acid, and even elemental sulphur for industrial application.
Biotechnological application of autotrophic sulphur bacteria in thermophilic conditions to produce economically attractive elemental sulphur is also another environmentally benign alternative for SO₂ remediation.
Way forward
Ensure affordable electricity without compromising environmental safeguards.
Prioritise FGDs in high SO₂-emitting and densely populated zones.
Increase share of renewables; gradually phase out older, inefficient coal plants.
Consistent emission norms to allow investment planning and tech upgrades.
Environmental decisions must factor long-term health costs of air pollution.
Mains Practice Question
Q Discuss the impact of SO₂ emissions on air quality, human health, and ecosystems. Evaluate the effectiveness of current mitigation technologies in coal-based thermal power plants in India. (250 words, 15 marks)
Source: UPSC Environment Current Affairs 2025: Why concerns about SO₂ emissions, key contributor to air pollution, keep recurring