Category: ENVIRONMENT

Context:  In Tamil Nadu’s Gulf of Mannar, a large-scale coral restoration programme has been carried out by the Suganthi Devadason Marine Research Institute (SDMRI)

• Process:
  • Scientists identify degraded reefs for transplantation.
  • Concrete frames and other substrates are deployed.
  • Coral fragments from healthy reefs are transplanted onto these structures.
  • Over time, the corals grow, forming new reefs.
• Scale of restoration:
  • 5,550 artificial substrates deployed.
  • 51,183 coral fragments transplanted.
  • Around 40,000 sq. m. of degraded reefs restored.
  • Cost: $111.7 per sq. m. of reef restored.
• Survival rates: Coral survival improved significantly — from 56.6% (2002–2004) to 71.6% (2015–2019). In Vaan Island alone, live coral cover rose from 31.6% to 42.1%.
• Impact:
  • Coral species diversity restored (20 genera transplanted).
  • Increased fish biomass and marine biodiversity.
  • Local communities benefit via improved fisheries.
• Challenges:
  • Climate change (warming seas, acidification).
  • Natural disasters (2004 tsunami, 2016 coral bleaching).
  • Anthropogenic pressures (fishing, pollution).
• Way forward: Scaling up restoration, continuous monitoring, community participation, and stricter protection measures.

Learning Corner:

Methods of Coral Restoration

1. Coral Gardening (Nursery Method)
   • Involves growing coral fragments in underwater or land-based nurseries.
   • Once they mature, corals are transplanted back to degraded reefs.
   • Suitable for branching and fast-growing species like Acropora.
2. Larval Propagation (Sexual Reproduction Method)
   • Collects coral gametes (eggs and sperm) during spawning events.
   • Fertilized larvae are cultured in controlled environments, then settled on artificial substrates.
   • Ensures genetic diversity and resilience against climate change.
3. Coral Transplantation
   • Direct transfer of corals from healthy sites to degraded reefs.
   • Works as an emergency intervention, but may damage donor sites.
4. Artificial Reefs (Substrate-based Restoration)
   • Use of concrete blocks, metal frames, ceramic tiles, or eco-engineered substrates to provide stable attachment surfaces for coral growth.
   • Enhances fish aggregation and reef resilience.
5. Cryopreservation & Assisted Breeding (Emerging Techniques)
   • Cryopreservation of coral sperm/larvae for future restoration.
   • Selective breeding and assisted evolution to enhance stress tolerance (e.g., heat or disease resistance).

Source: THE HINDU

Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Context : The term can directly asked in Prelims

Summary

• Discovery:
  • Researchers identified Connexin proteins (Cx37 and Cx40) as key to rapid blood flow coordination.
  • These proteins form gap junctions that link artery walls, allowing electrical-like signals to travel faster than chemical messengers.
  • In mice, these signals moved fuel-delivery instructions across vessels at nearly the speed of neurons firing.
• Findings:
  • Gap junction signalling enables arteries to widen quickly and in sync, ensuring timely delivery of blood to active brain regions.
  • Blocking connexins slowed the signal, proving their role in high-speed vascular coordination.
• Significance:
  • Helps explain how the brain prevents lapses in attention or function.
  • Offers insights for disease research—loss of gap junction function in aging or small vessel disease may impair brain blood flow.
  • Valuable for AI-guided brain models, stroke research, and drug delivery strategies.

Learning Corner:

Connexin Proteins

• Connexins are a family of membrane proteins that form gap junction channels between adjacent cells.
• Each gap junction is made of two hemichannels (connexons), and each connexon consists of six connexin subunits.
• These channels allow direct intercellular communication by permitting the passage of ions, metabolites, and signaling molecules.
• More than 20 types of connexins are identified in humans (e.g., Connexin43, Connexin26).

Functions

1. Cell–cell communication: Essential for coordination of cellular activities.
2. Electrical coupling: Maintains synchronized contraction in cardiac and smooth muscle.
3. Developmental regulation: Plays roles in embryonic growth, tissue differentiation.
4. Metabolic cooperation: Enables nutrient and signal sharing between cells.

Source:  THE HINDU

Category: POLITY

Context: India launched E20 petrol (20% ethanol-blended fuel) in 2023, with a target of E20 nationwide by 2025 (advanced from 2030).

Summary

• Vehicle Owners’ Reaction:
  • New vehicles from 2023 carry E20-compatible stickers.
  • Older vehicles may face mileage drops and higher maintenance costs.
  • Surveys show ~77% of vehicle owners in some districts opposed the shift due to cost concerns.
• Economic & Environmental Impact:
  • Reduced carbon dioxide emissions by 700 lakh tonnes (Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas).
  • Boosts India’s rural economy by supporting sugarcane farmers.
  • However, heavy reliance on sugarcane raises concerns over water use, food security, and ecological stress.
• Global Dimension:
  • The U.S. has pushed India to relax ethanol import restrictions; trade issues remain contentious.
  • Ethanol production in India is largely domestic, supported by government policies and financial incentives.
• EV Transition vs Ethanol:
  • Ethanol blending seen as a bridge fuel toward cleaner energy.
  • EV adoption in India is slower due to high costs, inadequate charging infrastructure, and global supply chain issues (e.g., rare earth imports from China).
  • Ethanol helps reduce emissions in the short run while EV ecosystem matures.
• Challenges:
  • Dependence on water-intensive sugarcane.
  • Limited diversification into maize and other biofuel crops.
  • Vulnerability to trade policies and international market fluctuations.
  • Balancing ethanol promotion with the long-term EV transition.

Learning Corner:

Ethanol Blending in India 

• Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme launched in 2003, scaled up in 2013.
• Aim: Reduce dependence on crude oil imports, cut carbon emissions, support farmers, and promote cleaner fuel.
• Target: 20% blending (E20) by 2025-26 (advanced from 2030).

Current Status (as of 2025)

• 12% national blending average achieved in 2023-24.
• Some states (like Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka) have achieved >12% blending.
• India has become the 3rd largest producer of ethanol after USA and Brazil.

Feedstocks for Ethanol

1. Sugar-based: Sugarcane juice, B-heavy molasses, C-molasses.
2. Starch-based: Maize, broken rice.
3. Other sources: Damaged food grains, surplus rice from FCI.
4. Second-generation (2G) ethanol: Agricultural residues like rice straw, wheat straw, bagasse.

Government Initiatives

• National Policy on Biofuels (2018): Promotes 1G & 2G ethanol, biodiesel, advanced biofuels.
• Ethanol Interest Subvention Scheme: Soft loans for distillery capacity expansion.
• SATAT Scheme: For compressed biogas, complementing ethanol.
• GOBARdhan Scheme: Linking waste to wealth for rural bioenergy.
• PM-PRANAM Scheme (2023): Encourages alternative fertilizers & biofuels.

Source: THE HINDU

Category: ENVIRONMENT

Context: Dibru-Saikhowa species.

• Location & Importance: Dibru-Saikhowa National Park (DSNP), Assam — the only habitat of feral horses in India, located between the Brahmaputra and Dibru rivers.
• New Finding: A study (Grasslands in Flux, published in Earth) identified that not just invasive plants but also two native species (Bombax ceiba and Lagerstroemia speciosa) are altering DSNP’s grassland ecosystem.
• Other invasive species: Parthenium hysterophorus, Mikania micrantha, Chromolaena odorata, Ageratum conyzoides.
• Land Use & Land Cover (LULC) Change:
  • 2000: Grasslands covered ~28.78% of DSNP.
  • 2013: Shrubland (81.34 sq. km) became dominant, grasslands declined.
  • 2024: Degraded forests expanded (80.52 sq. km). Grassland, degraded forest, semi-evergreen forest, and bare land converted into shrubland.
• Ecological Impact:
  • Grassland degradation → loss of biodiversity, habitat shrinkage, and climate change intensification.
  • Threat to endemic species like Bengal florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis), hog deer (Axis porcinus), and swamp grass babbler (Prinia cinerascens).
• Feral Horses: About 200 feral horses remain — descendants of cavalry horses abandoned during WWII.
• Recommendations:
  • Targeted grassland recovery project.
  • Control of invasive species.
  • Improved surveillance & staffing.
  • Relocation of villages from within park boundaries.

Learning Corner:

Overview

• Location: Tinsukia & Dibrugarh districts, Assam.
• Lies in the floodplains of the Brahmaputra and Lohit rivers.
• Declared National Park in 1999; earlier a Wildlife Sanctuary (1986).
• Part of the Brahmaputra floodplain ecosystem; also a Biosphere Reserve (1997).

Ecological Significance

• Known for wetlands, grasslands, and swamp forests.
• Identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International.
• Houses both terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity.

Flora

• Semi-evergreen forests, deciduous forests, grasslands, and wetlands.
• Dominant species: Dillenia indica, Bombax ceiba, and tall grasses.

Fauna

• Mammals:
  • Feral horses (unique to the park).
  • Tiger, leopard, wild boar, Asiatic water buffalo.
• Primates: Hoolock gibbon, capped langur.
• Birds: Over 350 species (White-winged wood duck, Bengal florican, Greater adjutant stork).
• Aquatic: Rich fish diversity; occasional sightings of the Gangetic river dolphin.

Threats

• Oil exploration & accidental oil blowouts (notably Baghjan blowout, 2020).
• Encroachment and habitat fragmentation.
• Frequent floods altering park ecology.

Conservation Importance

• Acts as a carbon sink through swamp forests.
• Supports endangered bird species and unique feral horse population.
• Crucial for maintaining floodplain ecology of Brahmaputra.

Source: THE HINDU

Category: POLITY

Context: The Supreme Court is hearing a Presidential Reference on whether timelines can be imposed on Governors/President for acting on State Bills

• Centre’s Argument:
  • Governors are not mere post offices but constitutional actors with discretion, serving as a check on “hasty legislation” by States.
  • Articles 200 (Governor’s assent to State Bills) and 201 (President’s consideration of State Bills) deliberately do not prescribe timelines, reflecting conscious constitutional design.
  • Judicially imposing deadlines would amount to rewriting the Constitution.
  • The Supreme Court should not use Article 142 to create the concept of “deemed assent”, as it would turn a constitutional prerogative into a judicial mandate.
• Tamil Nadu’s Argument:
  • The April judgment rightly imposed deadlines, since Governors and the President cannot indefinitely delay Bills.
  • Governors are bound by the ‘aid and advice’ of the Council of Ministers, and prolonged inaction undermines democracy.
  • Tamil Nadu challenged Governor R.N. Ravi’s delays in assenting to State Bills.
• Key Issues at Stake:
  • Balance between State legislatures’ democratic mandate and the discretion of Governors/President.
  • Whether courts can prescribe time limits where the Constitution is silent.
  • Whether Article 142 allows the SC to introduce “deemed assent.”

Learning Corner:

Constitutional Position

• The Governor is the constitutional head of the state, appointed by the President (Article 155).
• Acts as a link between the Union and the State, ensuring federal balance.

Powers & Functions of a Governor

1. Executive Powers
   • Appoints the Chief Minister, other ministers, and the Advocate General.
   • Appoints the State Election Commissioner, Chairman & members of State Public Service Commission (on President’s advice).
   • All executive actions of the State are taken in his/her name.
   • Can recommend President’s Rule under Article 356 if State Government fails.
2. Legislative Powers
   • Summons, prorogues, and dissolves the State Legislature.
   • Addresses the first session after elections and at the start of each year.
   • Gives assent to Bills (Article 200) – may assent, withhold, reserve for President, or return (once) for reconsideration.
   • Nominates 1 member from the Anglo-Indian community (till 2020, now abolished by 104th Amendment).
   • Nominates 1/6th of the members to the Legislative Council (if bicameral).
3. Financial Powers
   • Ensures the State Budget is laid before the legislature.
   • No money bill can be introduced without the Governor’s recommendation.
   • Administers the Contingency Fund of the State.
4. Judicial Powers
   • Can grant pardons, reprieves, commutations, and remissions for offences against state laws (Article 161).
   • Consulted in the appointment of judges of the State High Court.
5. Discretionary Powers
   • Reserving a Bill for the consideration of the President.
   • Recommendation for President’s Rule (Article 356).
   • Deciding on appointment of CM in a hung assembly.
   • When no party commands majority or when confidence of House is in doubt.

Conclusion

The Governor functions as a constitutional head, expected to act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers, but also wields certain discretionary powers to maintain constitutional order. This dual role often leads to debates on federalism and Centre-State relations.

Source: THE HINDU

Introduction

India’s farm sector has long ensured national food security but now faces low yields, climate stress, price volatility and ecological degradation. The strategic next step is to shift public resources from distortionary subsidies to high-return agricultural R&D and efficient value chains, anchored in environmental sustainability.

Why Agri-R&D now (key arguments)

• Subsidy → Productivity: A sizeable share of farm outlay still goes to input subsidies; re-allocating even part of this toward R&D, climate-smart practices and post-harvest infrastructure gives much higher social returns.
• Sustainability has to be central: Depleting groundwater, soil degradation and rising extreme weather demand research on water-saving crops/practices, resilient seed varieties, and carbon-smart agronomy.
• Quality growth: To raise farmer incomes, India must upgrade from raw output to value-added, market-linked, traceable agri products.

Where India stands (latest data)

• Agri-R&D spend: India invests around 0.6–0.7% of agricultural GDP on public agri-R&D—below the ~0.9% world average; advanced economies often spend above 2%.
• Sector growth & yield gaps: Agriculture averaged ~4.2% growth in the last five years but slowed to 1.4% in 2023-24; yields trail major producers due to fragmentation, low investment and mechanisation gaps.
• Extension backbone: 731 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) operate nationwide—vital for lab-to-land transfer, but capacity varies by state.

Government initiatives that push R&D and innovation

• Digital Agriculture Mission (2024–): AgriStack, crop estimation, AI and satellite-based monitoring.
• Clean Plant Programme: Virus-free, high-quality planting material for horticulture.
• National Mission on Natural Farming: Targets 1 crore farmers, 7.5 lakh hectares, promoting chemical-free farming.
• NICRA (Climate-resilient seeds): Over 2,900 new varieties released (2014–24), with 298 climate-resilient varieties tested.
• Kisan Drones: Subsidy and support for 300 drones, demos on 75,000 hectares.
• 10,000 FPOs scheme: Already 8,400+ FPOs promoted, aggregating farmers for better bargaining and value-addition.
• e-NAM: A unified digital market for better price discovery and access.

Challenges

• Under-investment & state disparity: Some states spend less than 0.25% of agri-GDP on R&D.
• Weak translation: Climate-resilient seed varieties often fail to scale due to certification and procurement bottlenecks.
• Digital divides: AgriStack rollout depends on connectivity, farmer consent, and state readiness.
• Natural farming: Lack of strong market linkages, risk mitigation, and evidence across diverse agro-climatic zones.
• Horticulture planting material: Accreditation, virus indexing, and nursery capacity remain bottlenecks.

Way Forward

• Raise agri-R&D to 1.2–1.5% of agri-GDP in five years; launch a Competitive Grants Fund to draw private/CSR investment.
• Tie subsidies to outcomes—like water saving and soil health—rather than inputs.
• Mission mode on seeds: fast-track climate-resilient seeds, clean nurseries, strict timelines for varietal release and multiplication.
• KVK 2.0: link funding to performance, digital advisories, and involve women/youth agri-preneurs.
• Scale APCNF-type models with transitional support like credit and procurement.
• Strengthen FPOs with working capital, cold chains, branding, and export linkages.
• Boost mechanisation: concessional finance for drones, precision farming tools, and integration with insurance/credit.
• Rigorous impact evaluation of major schemes like NMNF, CPP, and DAM to guide future policy.

Conclusion

India’s agricultural future will be shaped less by how much we subsidise and more by how well we innovate. A decisive push for agri-R&D, resilient seeds, digital infrastructure, sustainable farming models, and strong value chains can ensure higher farmer incomes, global competitiveness, and ecological balance. 

Q. “Rationalisation of subsidies and enhanced investment in agricultural R&D is the key to doubling farmer incomes in India.” Critically examine.(250 words)

Introduction

Patents are a crucial indicator of a nation’s innovation ecosystem, reflecting its transition from being a consumer of global technology to a producer of indigenous solutions. India’s push for “Make in India” and the strengthening of R&D and innovation capabilities has significantly reshaped the patent filing landscape.

Current Trends in Patent Filing

• In early 2000s, global majors (US, Japan, Germany, South Korea) dominated Indian filings. Indian share was <20%.
• Post-2013, Indian-origin filings surged, crossing 43% in recent years 
• Sectoral trends:
  • Computer science patents rose from 11.27% (2000) → 26.5% (2023).
  • Electronics: 8.27% → 16.41%.
  • Physics-related patents fell from 26% → 9%.
• Universities like IITs and IISc are major contributors. Eg: IIT Madras doubled patents (2022–2023), IIT Bombay topped in 2023–24.

Government Initiatives

• KAPILA (2020) – IP literacy and awareness in higher education.
• Atal Innovation Mission (2016) – fosters problem-solving and entrepreneurship.
• Patent Reforms – expedited examination, reduced fees (esp. for MSMEs & education sector), digitalization of filings.
• National IPR Policy (2016) – comprehensive framework for innovation ecosystem.
• Incubation & Funding – support for startups, linkages between industry and academia.

Challenges in Patent Filing

• Delays: Average time to grant a patent in India is ~5 years, impacting innovation cycles.
• Low R&D expenditure: ~0.6–0.7% of GDP vs. >2% in advanced economies.
• Brain Drain: Many talented Indian researchers migrate abroad, contributing to foreign patents instead of domestic filings.
• Awareness gap: Limited knowledge of IP rights among MSMEs, startups, and educational institutions.
• Funding constraints: Inadequate venture capital and early-stage innovation support.
• Quality vs. Quantity: Rise in filings but commercialization and technology transfer remain weak.

Brain Drain and Patent Filing

• A significant proportion of top AI, computer science, and biotechnology researchers of Indian origin work in the U.S./Europe.
• Their patents are filed abroad, leading to loss of IP ownership for India.
• Reverse brain drain through initiatives like VAJRA Faculty Scheme and collaborative R&D is critical.

R&D and Innovation Linkage

• Investment in R&D directly correlates with patent output.
• India’s GERD (Gross Expenditure on R&D) is <1% of GDP; major economies like U.S., China spend >2–3%.
• Stronger academia–industry linkages, more public–private partnerships, and dedicated funding are required.

Way Forward

•  Time-bound grants: Introduce service-level agreements and expand expedited routes.
• Strengthen TTOs: Professionalize and fund tech transfer offices in universities.
• Boost R&D: Raise expenditure to 2% of GDP, crowd-in private funding, and set up mission-mode R&D consortia.
• MSME enablement: Subsidized IP vouchers, pooled IP for clusters, and simplified enforcement.
• Talent retention & diaspora leverage: More robust programs to attract and retain global Indian researchers.
• Focus on quality & commercialization: Link funding to licensing outcomes, startup formation, and revenue generation.

Conclusion

India’s patent ecosystem is at an inflection point. Universities are acting as changemakers, but sustaining this momentum requires higher R&D investment, stronger IP infrastructure, and retention of talent. As India aspires to be a global innovation hub, patents will remain central to its journey from ‘Make in India’ to ‘Invent in India’.

Value addition:

Global Best Practices India Can Adapt

• Bayh-Dole Act (USA): Gives universities rights over publicly funded research, spurring technology transfer offices and startups.

• USPTO Track One: Guarantees patent decisions within 12 months, ensuring predictability.
• EU Unitary Patent & Unified Patent Court: Lowers costs, simplifies enforcement, and gives SMEs easier access to IP protection.
• Patent Prosecution Highway (Japan, US, EU): Enables work-sharing across patent offices to reduce pendency.
• China’s resident-driven filings: Huge scale of filings driven by industrial policy and domestic R&D, though with quality concerns.

Q. Despite policy reforms and government support, India lags advanced economies in patent filings and R&D intensity. Analyze the structural challenges in India’s IPR ecosystem and suggest reforms.