Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Context:  Scientists have detected gravitational waves from the largest black hole merger observed so far.

These waves, first predicted by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity (1915), were only directly observed in 2015 with the help of LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory).

Key Points:

• Gravitational waves are ripples in space-time caused by massive cosmic events like black hole mergers.
• The newly detected event involved black holes 100–150 times larger than the Sun, which challenges current theories as such sizes were not expected to exist.
• One of the black holes was spinning at extremely high speeds, nearing limits set by General Relativity.
• The event involved a merged black hole 225 times the Sun’s mass, surpassing previous records.

Significance:

• This discovery could refine theories about black hole formation, star evolution, and universe composition.
• It highlights gaps in the current understanding of stellar evolution leading to black hole formation.

LIGO and Global Collaboration:

• LIGO first detected gravitational waves in 2015.
• Collaborators now include Virgo (Italy) and KAGRA (Japan).
• A new LIGO observatory is planned in India (Maharashtra), expected by April 2030, enhancing global detection capabilities.

Learning Corner:

Black Holes:

• A black hole is a region in space where gravity is so strong that nothing—not even light—can escape it.
• Formed when massive stars collapse under their own gravity at the end of their life cycle.
• The event horizon is the boundary beyond which nothing can return.
• Black holes can be of different types: stellar-mass, intermediate, and supermassive (found at the centers of galaxies).
• According to General Relativity, black holes warp spacetime, influencing nearby matter and light.

LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory):

• LIGO is a large-scale physics experiment and observatory designed to detect gravitational waves—ripples in spacetime caused by massive accelerating objects like merging black holes or neutron stars.
• It uses laser interferometry to measure incredibly small disturbances caused by passing gravitational waves.
• In 2015, LIGO made the first direct detection of gravitational waves, confirming a major prediction of Einstein’s theory of general relativity.
• The detected signal came from the merger of two black holes about 1.3 billion light-years away.

Link Between Black Holes and LIGO:

• Merging black holes are among the most powerful sources of gravitational waves.
• LIGO allows scientists to observe black holes indirectly, by detecting the gravitational waves produced during such cosmic events.
• This has revolutionized astrophysics by opening a new window to study invisible phenomena in the universe.

Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: ECONOMICS

Context: Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) pulled out a net ₹77,901 crore from Indian equity markets during the first half of 2025.

Key Highlights:

• Sector-wise Outflows (H1 2025):
  • Highest Outflows:
    • Information Technology: ₹30,600 crore
    • FMCG: ₹18,178 crore
    • Power: ₹15,422 crore
  • Net Inflows:
    • Telecommunication: ₹26,685 crore
    • Financial Services: ₹13,717 crore
    • Services: ₹7,294 crore
• FPI Shareholding:
  • Declined to 16.09% of market capitalization as of June 30, 2025, down from 16.11% in December 2024.
• Month-wise Equity Sales (Q1 2025):
  • January: ₹35,474 crore
  • February: ₹34,574 crore
  • March: ₹3,973 crore
• April-June 2025: FPIs turned net buyers:
  • April: +₹4,223 crore
  • May: +₹19,860 crore
  • June: +₹14,590 crore
• Reason for Selling:
  • Overvaluation in certain sectors, profit-booking, and reallocation contributed to the FPI exit in early 2025.

Learning Corner:

Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI):

• Definition: Investment by foreign entities in a country’s financial assets such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other marketable securities.
• Nature: Short-term and volatile; often called “hot money.”
• Control: Investors do not get direct control over the business operations of the companies they invest in.
• Example: Buying shares of Indian companies listed on the stock exchange.
• Regulator: Handled by SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India).

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI):

• Definition: Investment by foreign entities in physical assets or ownership of a company in another country.
• Nature: Long-term and stable.
• Control: Investors gain control, management rights, or a significant degree of influence over the company.
• Example: A foreign automobile company setting up a manufacturing plant in India.
• Regulator: Regulated by DPIIT (Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade) and RBI.

Key Differences:

Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Context : India successfully conducted test-firings of multiple strategic missiles, showcasing its deterrence and operational readiness.

Key Missile Tests:

• Akash Prime
  • Test Location: Ladakh
  • Altitude: Operates at over 4,500 metres
  • Purpose: High-altitude air defense, tested after recent India-China tensions near the Line of Actual Control (LAC)
  • Variant: Upgraded Akash missile for the Indian Army
  • Part of: Operation Sindoor
• Prithvi-II and Agni-I
  • Test Location: Integrated Test Range, Chandipur, Odisha
  • Capabilities:
    • Prithvi-II: ~350 km range, 500 kg payload
    • Agni-I: 700–900 km range, 1,000 kg payload
  • Type: Short-range, nuclear-capable ballistic missiles
  • Use: Part of India’s strategic nuclear deterrent

Learning Corner:

Akash Prime

Akash Prime is an indigenously developed upgraded version of the Akash surface-to-air missile system, designed and built by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) for the Indian Army.

Key Features:

• Purpose: High-altitude air defence against aerial threats such as fighter aircraft, drones, and helicopters.
• Range: Short- to medium-range (similar to Akash: ~25–30 km).
• Altitude Capability: Specifically configured to operate at high altitudes above 4,500 meters, ideal for deployment in areas like Ladakh and the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
• Guidance: Equipped with improved accuracy, reliability, and low-temperature operability compared to the original Akash missile.
• Warhead: Can carry both conventional and nuclear warheads.
• Mobility: Can be launched from mobile platforms, increasing tactical flexibility.
• Recent Test: Successfully test-fired in Ladakh in July 2025 under Operation Sindoor.

Prithvi-II Missile

• Type: Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile
• Developed by: DRDO under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP)
• Range: Approximately 350 km
• Warhead Capacity: Up to 500 kg, can carry both conventional and nuclear warheads
• Guidance System: Advanced inertial navigation system
• Launch Platform: Mobile launchers
• Users: Operated by the Strategic Forces Command of the Indian Army
• Purpose: Tactical strike missile for battlefield use
• Recent Test: Successfully tested on 17 July 2025 from the Integrated Test Range, Odisha

Agni-I Missile

• Type: Short-range nuclear-capable ballistic missile
• Developed by: DRDO
• Range: 700 to 900 km
• Warhead Capacity: Up to 1,000 kg, capable of delivering nuclear payloads
• Guidance System: Sophisticated navigation and control systems with high accuracy
• Launch Platform: Road/rail mobile launchers
• Users: Strategic Forces Command
• Role: Part of India’s nuclear deterrence and second-strike capability
• Recent Test: Also tested on 17 July 2025 from Chandipur, Odisha along with Prithvi-II

Source :  THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: HISTORY

Context: Raziyya Sultan & Nur Jahan Dropped from New Class 8 NCERT History Textbook 

Key Omissions & Changes:

• Raziyya Sultan (ruled 1236–1240): Previously described as “more able and qualified” than her brothers; now not mentioned.
• Nur Jahan: Earlier credited with having coins struck and seals issued in her name; now dropped.
• No mention of any women rulers or queens from the Delhi Sultanate or Mughal period in the new book.
• Tipu Sultan and Haidar Ali: Also removed, with NCERT stating the new books are aligned with the National Education Policy 2020 and National Curriculum Framework 2023, not older content structures.

Who is Newly Added:

• Rani Durgavati (Gond queen): Recognized for resisting Mughal attacks under Akbar in 1564.
• Tarabai (Maratha queen): Described as a “fearless warrior queen” who resisted Aurangzeb.

Learning Corner:

Raziyya Sultan

Raziyya Sultan (reign: 1236–1240 CE) was the first and only female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate and one of the few women in medieval Islamic history to rule independently.

Key Facts:

• Dynasty: Slave Dynasty (Mamluk Dynasty)
• Father: Iltutmish, who nominated her as his successor due to her capability over his sons.
• Reign: 1236–1240 CE
• Title: Took the title “Sultan”, not “Sultana,” to assert equality with male rulers.
• Administration: Known for promoting merit over nobility and appointing non-Turks to key positions, which angered the Turkish nobility (Chahalgani).
• Challenges: Faced opposition from nobles for being a woman and for breaking orthodox norms.
• Downfall: Deposed and eventually killed after political instability and rebellion.

Nur Jahan

Nur Jahan (1577–1645) was one of the most influential women in Mughal history, known for her political power, cultural contributions, and administrative role during the reign of her husband, Emperor Jahangir.

Key Facts:

• Birth Name: Mehr-un-Nissa
• Title: Given the title “Nur Jahan” meaning “Light of the World” after marrying Jahangir in 1611 CE.
• Political Role:
  • Actively co-ruled with Jahangir, especially as his health declined.
  • Issued royal farmans (decrees) in her name — rare for a Mughal empress.
  • Had coins minted with her name — an extraordinary recognition of her authority.
• Administration:
  • Influenced court appointments and foreign policy.
  • Promoted trade and architecture, and supported widows and orphan girls.
• Family Influence:
  • Her father Itimad-ud-Daulah and brother Asaf Khan held key positions.
  • She arranged the marriage of her niece Mumtaz Mahal to Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).

Rani Durgavati

• Rani Durgavati (1524–1564) was a Rajput queen of the Gond kingdom of Garha Mandla in central India (present-day Madhya Pradesh).
• Born into the Chandela Rajput dynasty, she married Dalpat Shah, the Gond ruler, and took over administration after his death.
• Renowned for her courage, administrative acumen, and military leadership, she effectively governed her kingdom and strengthened its defenses.
• In 1564, she fought bravely against Mughal forces led by Asaf Khan, a general under Emperor Akbar.
• Facing defeat, she chose to die by her own dagger rather than surrender, becoming a symbol of valour and resistance in Indian history.
• She is celebrated as one of the earliest women warrior rulers to fiercely resist Mughal imperialism.

Tarabai

• Tarabai Bhosale (1675–1761) was a prominent Maratha queen and daughter-in-law of Chhatrapati Shivaji.
• She was the wife of Rajaram I, Shivaji’s younger son, and assumed power as regent of the Maratha empire after his death in 1700.
• Tarabai is remembered for her military leadership and administration during a crucial phase of Maratha history, especially for leading resistance against the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.
• Under her leadership, the Maratha forces regained lost territories and continued guerrilla warfare, successfully stalling Mughal advances in the Deccan.
• She is often described as a “fearless warrior queen” and was a central figure in preserving Maratha sovereignty during a period of crisis.
• Later, she also played a significant role in Maratha court politics, including efforts to maintain control during succession struggles.

Source: THE HINDU

Category: ECONOMICS

Context: The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation released the June 2025 Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) bulletin).

Key Indicators (15+ years):

• Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR):
  • Overall: 54.2%
  • Rural: 56.1% | Urban: 50.4%
• Worker Population Ratio (WPR):
  • Overall: 51.2%
  • Rural: 53.3% | Urban: 46.8%
• Unemployment Rate (UR):
  • Overall: 5.6%
  • Rural: ~5.0% | Urban: 5.6%
  • Youth (15–29): 15.3%
• Female LFPR: ~35.2% (rural), ~25% (urban)
• Female WPR: 30.2% (overall), 33.6% (rural), 22.9% (urban)

Trends (June vs May 2025):

• LFPR fell from 54.8% to 54.2%
• WPR dropped from 51.7% to 51.2%
• UR stayed steady at 5.6%
• Female UR slightly declined
• Youth UR rose from 15.0% to 15.3%

Methodology Updates:

• Based on a rotational panel sampling design introduced in January 2025
• Each household is surveyed four times over four months
• Sample size expanded: 89,493 households and 3.8 lakh persons surveyed in June 2025

Learning Corner:

Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)

The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) is a nationwide labour and employment survey launched by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) in April 2017, conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO).

Objectives:

• To provide estimates of key labour market indicators such as:
  • Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR)
  • Worker Population Ratio (WPR)
  • Unemployment Rate (UR)
• To generate data for both urban and rural areas at frequent intervals.

Key Features:

• Uses two approaches:
  • Usual Status (US) – for annual estimates
  • Current Weekly Status (CWS) – for quarterly and monthly estimates
• Provides insights into:
  • Workforce composition (sector-wise, gender-wise)
  • Employment trends over time
  • Urban-rural employment disparities

Significance:

• Replaces the older Employment–Unemployment Survey.
• Aids in formulating labour, employment, and social sector policies.
• Helps monitor employment elasticity, job creation, and participation of vulnerable groups like women and youth.

Source: PIB

Introduction (Context)

In May 2025, the Trump administration initially imposed stringent controls on EDA software exports to China, requiring licences for the sale of critical chip design tools from companies like Cadence, Synopsys and Siemens. However, the US government reversed course in exchange for China’s commitment to approve exports of rare earth elements to the US.

This move could reshape global semiconductor dynamics, affecting India’s semiconductor growth plans.

What is Semiconductor?

A semiconductor is a material with electrical conductivity between a conductor (like copper) and an insulator (like glass). 

The most used semiconductor materials are silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide.

Applications

• Microprocessors and computer chips
• Memory devices (RAM, flash storage)
• Sensors, diodes, and transistors
• Smartphones, laptops, automotive electronics, industrial machines, solar cells

It is almost used in everyday life.

What is EDA?

• Electronic design automation (EDA) is a set of software, hardware, and essential services for designing chips and semiconductor devices.
• It is a simulated world where the circuits and designs are conceived and analyzed before making it to the real world. 
• Without EDA tools, chip design becomes nearly impossible due to the billions of transistors involved in modern microchips.

Challenges and Opportunities for India: after lifting of ban

Challenges

• Earlier, the USA government has asked Electronic Design Automation software makers, which include Cadence, Synopsys and Siemens to stop supplying their tech to China which had impacted China’s semiconductor industry. Now, the ban has been lifted.
• Chinese companies can now resume full access to cutting-edge EDA tools, potentially accelerating their chip design capabilities and market competitiveness. This could intensify competition in global semiconductor markets where Indian companies are seeking to establish themselves.

Opportunities

• The recent US restriction showed that India depends too much on foreign EDA software (used for chip designing). This highlights the need for India to develop its own EDA tools to become self-reliant in the long run.
• Because of the uncertainty in US-China trade, companies will try to spread their supply chains to different countries. This could help Indian companies get more business.
• Big multinational companies want to reduce their dependence on Chinese suppliers. This means they might be more interested in working with Indian companies or investing in India.
• As companies focus on making their supply chains strong and safe, they may be ready to pay more to trusted suppliers. This could increase profits for Indian companies in the semiconductor sector.

Status of Semiconductor industry in India

• India’s semiconductor market is anticipated to expand from Rs. 4,50,164 crore (US$ 52 billion) in 2024 to Rs. 8,95,134 crore (US$ 103.4 billion) by 2030, according to a report by the India Electronics and Semiconductor Association (IESA). 
• This growth is attributed to major sectors such as mobile handsets, information technology (IT), telecommunications, consumer electronics, automotive, aerospace, and defence. Mobile handsets, IT, and industrial applications alone contribute nearly 70% of the semiconductor industry’s revenue. 
• India’s present role in global semiconductor manufacturing is considered relatively modest. As of 2025, just 0.1 percent of global wafer fabrication capacity is accounted for by the country, and about 1 percent of annual global capital expenditure on semiconductor equipment is contributed by it. 
• The country’s semiconductor market, valued at $35.18 billion in 2023, is expected to grow at a remarkable 27.2 per cent CAGR through 2030. 
• Tata Electronics has signed strategic partnerships with Tokyo Electron for equipment and services, focusing on workforce training and R&D enhancement.

Value addition: Government Initiatives 

• Government has approved the Semicon India programme with a total outlay of ₹76,000 crore for the development of semiconductor and display manufacturing ecosystem in the country. The programme aims to provide financial support to companies investing in semiconductors, display manufacturing and design ecosystem.
• The Scheme for Promotion of Manufacturing of Electronic Components and Semiconductors (SPECS)  provides a financial incentive of 25% on capital expenditure for electronic components, e-waste recycling, mechanics, micro/nano-electronic components, solar photovoltaic (SPV) polysilicon, SPV wafers and solar cells, specialized sub-assemblies and capital goods for manufacture of aforesaid goods. 
•  To boost domestic manufacturing and attract investment in mobile phones value chain including electronic components and semiconductor packaging, Production Linked Incentive Scheme (PLI) for Large Scale Electronics Manufacturing was notified. The scheme extends an incentive of 3% to 6% on incremental sales (over base year) of goods manufactured in India and covered under target segments viz. Mobile Phones and Specified Electronic Components, to eligible companies, for a period of 5 years.
• Electronics Development Fund (EDF) ensures the development of critical infrastructure components within the ESDM sector.

Way forward for India

• Strengthen R&D ecosystem with industry-academia collaboration.
• Develop indigenous semiconductor design and fabrication capabilities.
• Enhance ease of doing business and infrastructure for high-tech manufacturing.
• Build international partnerships for technology transfer and market access.
• Create a skilled workforce pipeline through specialised semiconductor engineering programmes.

Conclusion

India’s semiconductor industry is lacking fabrication infrastructure along with skilled workforce. With sustained government support, strategic global partnerships, and accelerated domestic capability building, India can transform from a semiconductor importer to a trusted global semiconductor partner amidst the evolving geopolitical landscape.

Mains Practice Question

Discuss the implications of recent US export policy reversals on India’s semiconductor ambitions. How can India strengthen its semiconductor ecosystem amidst global policy volatility? (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/us-eases-restrictions-on-china-india-semiconductor-ambitions-10133328/

Introduction (Context)

As part of a global initiative to switch to renewable energy sources and reduce fossil fuel consumption, attention has increasingly been focussed on biofuel production, wherein bioethanol has emerged as a promising alternative.  

Analysing, whether it can become an alternative to fossil fuels.

What is biofuel?

• Biofuel is fuel derived from biomass (organic matter from plants or animals) that can be used for energy production.
• Sources of biofuel:

• • First generation: Sugarcane, beet juice, corn, rice, maize, other grains.
  • Second generation: Agricultural waste like stalks, husks, wood, bagasse.
  • Third generation (emerging): Algae-based biofuels.

Types of Biofuels:

• Bioethanol: A biofuel produced by fermenting sugars and starches from crops like corn, sugarcane, and wheat. It can also be produced from cellulosic biomass like grasses and wood. 
• Biodiesel: A biofuel made from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled grease through a process called transesterification. 
• Biogas: A biofuel produced from the anaerobic digestion of organic matter like animal waste, food waste, and sewage. It mainly consists of methane and carbon dioxide. 
• Biohydrogen: A biofuel produced from various biomass sources through processes like gasification and aqueous phase reforming. 

Ethanol as liquid fuel

Properties:

• Remains liquid between -114°C to 78°C.
• Flash point: 9°C (easy ignition).
• Energy density is lower than petrol, but it burns well, giving similar mileage.

Use in vehicles:

• E5 blend (5% ethanol) works without engine changes.
• E10 or E15 may need minor tuning but no major modification.

Formation:

• Microorganisms like yeast and E. coli bacteria convert sugars into ethanol.
• Ethanol becomes toxic for these organisms above 10% concentration, so extra purification is needed.
• Co-fermentation (using multiple microbes) helps improve production.

Hence, the production of fuel-grade bioethanol involves six major steps: biomass selection, pretreatment, saccharification, fermentation, distillation and dehydration, and by-product recovery. 

Challenge:

Azeotropic ethanol contains approximately 4.4 per cent water. As water is not miscible with petrol and typically settles as sludge at the bottom of vehicle fuel tanks. When high ethanol blended fuel is added, water dissolves into the ethanol fraction, rendering the fuel unsuitable for use in unmodified engines.

Biomass and its role in the carbon cycle

Biomass in nature

• Biomass is all organic material (plants, trees, crops, etc.) present on Earth.
• Every year, about 250 gigatonnes (Gt) of dry biomass moves through the biosphere.
• Out of this, 100 Gt is carbon, circulated through processes like photosynthesis, respiration, feeding, and decomposition.
• Photosynthesis captures a huge amount of solar energy (about 2 × 10²¹ Joules each year globally) and converts CO₂ into plant matter.
• Humans manage only 0.5% of total biomass, mainly as food crops.

Biomass and carbon cycle

• Biomass maintains a “dynamic steady state” in the carbon cycle:
• Carbon absorbed during plant growth is equal to carbon released when used as fuel. Fossil fuels, however, release “ancient carbon” stored underground for millions of years, adding extra CO₂ to the atmosphere.
• Switching to biofuels like ethanol uses existing carbon in the natural cycle. In contrast, burning fossil fuels increases radiative forcing, leading to global warming and harming biodiversity.

Production of biofuel and challenges

• Ethanol is made by microorganisms (like yeast and bacteria) under slightly acidic conditions (pH 4-5). Microorganisms generate energy primarily through two major respiratory pathways: aerobic respiration, which requires molecular oxygen, and anaerobic respiration, which does not. 

Firth generation biofuel 

• Bioethanol can be easily generated from sugarcane, beet juice, corn, rice or other grains.
• There is ongoing controversy among scientists and economists, who argue that such diversion risks food supply shortages for populations living in poverty, especially in low and middle-income countries. 

Second generation biofuel

• Second generation biofuel projects aim to convert the large amounts of waste biomass, such as stalks, husks, wood and bagasse, into sources of fermentable sugars. 
• However, the major challenge to this approach is the extraction of sugar from these highly complex and extremely stable biofibres. 
• It requires pre-treatments using non-renewable and environmentally taxing chemicals like corrosive acid or alkali, which is very expensive.

Significance of biofuels

• Unlike fossil fuels, biofuels are derived from renewable biomass sources like plants and algae, making them a sustainable alternative. 
• When burned, biofuels generally produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuels, contributing to efforts to mitigate climate change. 
• Biofuels offer a domestically produced alternative to imported fossil fuels, enhancing a nation’s energy independence and reducing vulnerability to global oil market fluctuations. 
• Biofuel production can create jobs in rural areas, revitalize agricultural economies, and provide farmers with new markets for their crops. 
• Beyond greenhouse gas reductions, biofuels can lead to lower emissions of other pollutants like sulfur dioxide and air toxics, improving air quality. 
• Biofuels, particularly ethanol and biodiesel, are suitable for use in existing vehicles, making them a practical option for decarbonizing the transportation sector. 
• Biofuels can be produced from various waste and residue materials, contributing to waste management and resource efficiency. 

Environmental and social concerns

• Land use change causes deforestation and biodiversity loss.
• Fertilisers and decaying biomass emit N₂O and CH₄, which are more harmful than CO₂.
• Can lead to displacement of indigenous people and worsen climate patterns.
• Monoculture farming reduces biodiversity and is hard to reverse.
• Needs large amounts of freshwater, adding to water scarcity.

Conclusion

Biofuels offer a promising renewable alternative, but their ability to fully replace fossil fuels is limited by technological, environmental, and social constraints. Sustainable development of biofuel requires a careful balance between energy needs, food security, and ecological health.

Mains Practice Question

Discuss the challenges and opportunities of bioethanol production in India. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: https://indianexpress.com/article/upsc-current-affairs/upsc-essentials/can-biofuel-really-replace-fossil-fuels-10133043/