Category: ECONOMICS

Context: India have recently turned expansionary to address a slowing economy

Decoding Context: 

Key Points:

1. RBI’s Expansionary Monetary Policy:
   • The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has cut the policy repo rate in two successive meetings, now at 5.5%.
   • Falling inflation (within the 4% ± 2% target) has provided room for rate cuts.
   • The aim is to stimulate private investment and growth.
2. Fiscal Policy Shifts:
   • Recent income tax cuts point to an expansionary fiscal stance.
   • These are intended to increase disposable income and consumer spending.
3. Policy Coordination Challenge:
   • For macroeconomic stability, fiscal and monetary policy must be coordinated.
   • If fiscal policy is expansionary but monetary policy is tight (or vice versa), the effects may cancel each other out.
4. Household Behavior Issues:
   • Households may delay spending tax gains, due to uncertainty or a forward-looking mindset, limiting the intended stimulus impact.
5. Muted Growth Signals:
   • Despite policy support, growth is weak: GDP forecast at 6.5%, credit growth fell to 9%, and unemployment rose to 5.6% in May 2025.
6. Deficit Risk:
   • Tax cuts may lead to a revenue shortfall, increasing the fiscal deficit unless offset by spending cuts.
   • This could undermine long-term fiscal sustainability.

Learning Corner:

Tools to Adopt Expansionary Policy During Economic Slowdown

During an economic slowdown, governments and central banks adopt expansionary policies to boost demand, investment, and employment. These tools can be categorized into fiscal and monetary measures:

1. Fiscal Policy Tools (Handled by the Government)
2. a) Increased Government Spending

• Direct investment in infrastructure, public services, welfare programs, etc.
• Boosts aggregate demand and creates jobs.

1. b) Tax Cuts

• Reduction in personal income tax, corporate tax, or GST.
• Increases disposable income and encourages spending and investment.

1. c) Subsidies & Transfers

• Targeted subsidies (e.g., on food, fuel) or cash transfers (like PM-KISAN).
• Helps low-income households maintain consumption during downturns.

1. d) Public Sector Employment Schemes

• Programs like MGNREGA in India provide rural employment and support consumption.

2. Monetary Policy Tools (Handled by the RBI or Central Bank)
3. a) Repo Rate Cuts

• Reducing the repo rate lowers borrowing costs for banks, which passes on to consumers and businesses.
• Encourages loans and investment.

1. b) Reduction in CRR/SLR

• Lower Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) or Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) frees up more funds for banks to lend.

1. c) Open Market Operations (OMOs)

• Central bank buys government bonds to inject liquidity into the banking system.

1. d) Quantitative Easing (QE) (used in advanced economies)

• Large-scale asset purchases by the central bank to infuse liquidity.

1. e) Forward Guidance

• Assuring markets of low interest rates in the future to build investor confidence.

Other Supportive Measures

• Credit Guarantee Schemes for MSMEs
• Regulatory Forbearance: Relaxation in banking norms to sustain credit flow
• Incentives for Exports/Startups

Objective of Expansionary Policies

• Boost aggregate demand
• Increase employment
• Stimulate private investment
• Prevent deflation or recession

Source: THE HINDU

Category: ENVIRONMENT

Context: Fighting antimicrobial resistance with insect-based livestock feed

Key Highlights:

1. Problems with Traditional Livestock Feed:

• Leads to high greenhouse gas emissions, water and land use.
• Drives antimicrobial resistance (AMR) due to overuse of antibiotics.
• AMR is a growing threat with projected deaths increasing to 10 million by 2050 if unchecked.

2. Insect-Based Feed: A Sustainable Alternative:

• Insects like black soldier fly larvae, crickets, locusts, etc., are being considered as high-protein feed sources.
• They can convert organic waste into protein-rich feed, reducing waste and emissions.
• Uses less land and water, produces fewer emissions, and is cost-effective.

3. Indian Initiatives:

• CIBA and ICAR have signed MoUs to explore and scale up insect feed in shrimp and fish farming.
• Research is ongoing to evaluate nutritional benefits and scalability.

4. Scientific Evidence:

• Insects offer better digestibility than soy or fish meal.
• 1 kg of soymeal can be replaced by 0.76 kg of crickets or 0.88 kg of locusts, making it efficient.
• They are rich in amino acids, healthy fats, and micronutrients.

5. Global Support:

• The UN FAO supports insect farming to reduce AMR and meet rising protein demand sustainably.

Learning Corner:

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) 

What is Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)?

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolve and no longer respond to medicines like antibiotics, antivirals, or antifungals. This makes infections harder to treat, increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness, and death.

Causes of AMR

• Overuse and misuse of antibiotics in humans and animals
• Incomplete dosage or self-medication
• Overuse in agriculture and livestock
• Poor infection control in hospitals and clinics
• Environmental contamination from pharmaceutical waste

Global Impact

• AMR is a growing global health threat.
• Could cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050 if unchecked.
• Increases treatment costs, hospital stays, and mortality.

Ways to Reduce AMR

Rational Use of Antibiotics

• Prescribe only when necessary and complete the full course.
• Avoid self-medication and over-the-counter antibiotic use.

Responsible Use in Agriculture

• Ban non-therapeutic use of antibiotics in animal feed.
• Promote alternatives like insect-based feed and vaccines.

Improved Hygiene and Sanitation

• Handwashing, clean water, and infection control reduce the need for antibiotics.

Stronger Surveillance and Regulation

• Monitor antibiotic use and resistance patterns.
• Enforce strict guidelines in healthcare and veterinary sectors.

Promote R&D

• Invest in new antibiotics, diagnostics, and vaccines.

Public Awareness

• Educate communities on the dangers of AMR and safe medicine practices.

India’s Efforts

• National Action Plan on AMR (2017–2021)
• Red Line Campaign: Marking prescription-only antibiotics with a red line
• FSSAI regulations to curb antibiotic use in food-producing animals

Source: THE HINDU

Category: DEFENCE

Context :  INS Tamal to be commissioned on July 1, 2025

Key Highlights

• Final Foreign-Built Warship: Marks the end of India’s reliance on foreign-built warships as focus shifts to indigenous shipbuilding under ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’.
• Class & Design:
  • 8th Krivak-class frigate
  • 2nd in the upgraded Tushil-class (evolved from Talwar and Teg classes)
  • Displacement: 3,900 tonnes | Length: 125m | Speed: 30+ knots
  • Crew: Over 250 | Blue-water endurance
• Weapons & Systems:
  • BrahMos cruise missiles, Shtil SAMs
  • A190-01 100mm main gun
  • CIWS, torpedoes, ASW rockets
  • Advanced radar, EW, and electro-optical systems
  • Network-centric warfare capable
• Indigenous Contribution: 26% Indian-made components

Learning Corner:

Frigates in Indian Defence

What Are Frigates?

Frigates are medium-sized, fast, and multi-role warships used primarily for escort duties, anti-submarine warfare (ASW), anti-air warfare (AAW), and surface combat. They form a vital part of modern naval fleets due to their versatility and endurance.

Frigates in the Indian Navy

India operates several classes of frigates, both indigenously built and foreign-designed, forming the backbone of the Navy’s surface combat fleet.

Major Classes of Indian Navy Frigates

Shivalik Class (Project 17)

• India’s first stealth frigates
• Features stealth design, advanced sensors, and BrahMos missiles
• Built by Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL), Mumbai

Nilgiri Class (Project 17A)

• Successors to Shivalik class with enhanced stealth and automation
• Under construction in Indian shipyards (MDL & GRSE)
• Will be equipped with Barak-8 SAMs and BrahMos

Talwar Class (Russian-built, Krivak III design)

• Equipped with Klub-N missiles and Shtil SAMs
• Used for multi-role operations
• India inducted six ships of this class

Teg Class (Follow-on to Talwar class)

• Enhanced Russian design with improved sensors and weapons
• Includes ships like INS Teg, Tarkash, and Trikand

Tushil Class

• Upgraded Krivak-class frigates
• Includes INS Tushil and INS Tamal (latest foreign-built frigate)
• Final foreign collaboration before full indigenous shift

Key Features of Indian Frigates

• Stealth technology to reduce radar visibility
• Equipped with BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles
• Advanced radar and sonar systems
• Capable of ASW, AAW, and surface warfare
• Network-centric warfare capabilities for joint operations

Strategic Importance

• Essential for blue-water capabilities and long-range deployment
• Protect sea lines of communication (SLOCs)
• Act as deterrents against submarine and aerial threats
• Enable power projection in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR)

Source :  THE HINDU

Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Context : India is advancing rapidly toward satellite-based quantum communication, with a target to achieve operational capability by 2030.

Decoding Context

In June 2025, researchers at IIT Delhi, supported by DRDO, successfully demonstrated secure quantum communication using entangled photons over a 1-kilometer free-space optical link.

Key Achievements:

• Secure key rate: ~240 bits per second
• Quantum bit error rate: Below 7%
• Environment: Free-space link (not dependent on fiber), enabling use in battlefields, aircraft, and satellites
• Builds on earlier milestones:
  • 2022: India’s first intercity quantum link (via underground fiber)
  • 2024: 100 km QKD using telecom-grade optical fiber

Strategic Importance:

• Free-space systems allow secure communications in locations where fiber cables are impractical.
• Enables Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) over long distances — a foundation for unhackable communications.

Global Context:

• China currently leads with its Micius satellite demonstrating QKD over 1,200 km.
• India’s dual civil-military strategy is helping to close the technological gap.

Outlook:

• ISRO and DRDO are preparing for ground-to-satellite quantum links, aiming to establish a national quantum communication grid.
• Experts believe India is on track to join the elite group of countries with quantum-secure satellite networks by 2030.

Learning Corner:

What is Quantum-Based Communication?

Quantum-based communication refers to the use of quantum physics principles—especially quantum entanglement and superposition—to transmit information in an ultra-secure and tamper-proof manner. It represents a revolution in cybersecurity and communication systems, particularly through Quantum Key Distribution (QKD).

Key Feature: Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)

• QKD enables two parties to share a cryptographic key securely using quantum particles like photons.
• Any attempt to intercept the communication disturbs the quantum state, alerting users to a breach attempt.
• This makes communication virtually unhackable.

How It Works

1. Quantum particles (usually photons) are sent over a channel.
2. Their quantum states encode the encryption key.
3. If intercepted, the state collapses (due to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle), alerting both sender and receiver.

Types of Quantum Communication

• Fiber-based QKD: Over optical cables; limited by distance (100–200 km)
• Free-space QKD: Over air; suitable for battlefield and satellite use
• Satellite-based QKD: Enables global secure communication across continents

Global and Indian Scenario

• China leads with the Micius satellite, enabling 1,200 km QKD.
• India is progressing rapidly:
  • 2022: Intercity quantum fiber link
  • 2024: 100 km QKD via optical fiber
  • 2025: 1 km free-space entanglement demo by IIT Delhi–DRDO
  • Target: Satellite-based QKD by 2030

Applications

• Military & defense: Secure battlefield communication
• Banking & finance: Secure transactions
• Government & space: Protection of classified data
• Future internet: Quantum internet using entangled networks

Source: THE HINDU

Category: INTERNATIONAL

Context: The United States launched “Operation Midnight Hammer”, targeting three of Iran’s most critical nuclear facilities — Fordow, Natanz, and Isfahan

Strike Details

• Fordow: Deep underground uranium enrichment site hit by 12 GBU-57 bunker-buster bombs from B-2 stealth bombers; significant damage reported.
• Natanz & Isfahan: Hit by bunker-busters and cruise missiles; damage assessments are ongoing.
• Tactics: The operation used stealth and deception to bypass Iranian air defenses.

Learning Corner:

GBU-57 Massive Ordnance Penetrator (MOP)

What is it?

• The GBU-57 MOP is a 30,000-pound (13,600 kg) precision-guided bomb developed by the U.S.
• Designed specifically to destroy deeply buried and fortified underground targets, such as nuclear facilities, command bunkers, and tunnels.

Key Features:

• Length: Over 20 feet
• Penetration Depth: Capable of penetrating 200+ feet of concrete before detonation
• Guidance: GPS-aided inertial navigation system
• Carries a high explosive warhead to destroy hardened structures after deep impact

Usage:

• First combat use: June 22, 2025, by the U.S. against Iran’s Fordow nuclear facility
• Considered the most powerful non-nuclear penetrator bomb in active use

B-2 Spirit Stealth Bomber

What is it?

• The B-2 Spirit is a long-range, strategic stealth bomber developed by Northrop Grumman for the U.S. Air Force.
• Known for its radar-evading design, it can penetrate deep into enemy territory undetected.

Key Features:

• Crew: 2 pilots
• Range: Over 11,000 km without refueling
• Payload: Up to 18 tonnes, including nuclear and conventional bombs like the GBU-57
• Stealth: Flying wing design with radar-absorbent material

Strategic Role:

• Capable of deep-strike missions against high-value targets
• Frequently used for pre-emptive or high-risk missions, often in hostile environments

Significance of GBU-57 + B-2 Combo

• The B-2 is the only aircraft currently capable of carrying the GBU-57 MOP.
• Together, they provide the U.S. with the unique capability to strike and destroy deeply buried strategic targets, such as underground nuclear facilities, without detection.

Source: THE HINDU

Introduction (Context)

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is a global organization focused on promoting the safe, secure, and peaceful use of nuclear technologies. 

Recently, US airstrikes targeted Iran’s underground nuclear facilities (Fordo, Natanz, Isfahan) using MOP bunker busters. The IAEA quickly issued a statement confirming no off-site radiation leak post-attacks and continues to monitor the sites remotely and plans verification inspections once safety permits.

Given the unfolding events on the international stage, we are discussing its role in detail.

What is IAEA?

• The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an independent international organization under the aegis of the United Nations that promotes safe, secure, and peaceful use of nuclear technology.
• Established in 1957, following President Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace” speech at the UN General Assembly in 1953.
• Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
• It is sometimes referred to as the “nuclear watchdog” of the world.

Why was the IAEA created?

• To prevent the military use of nuclear materials, while promoting their peaceful applications in areas such as energy, agriculture, medicine, and research.
• To serve as an objective inspector of nuclear facilities worldwide, ensuring compliance with Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) obligations.
• To build international confidence, prevent nuclear arms races, and support disarmament efforts.
• To assist member states with technical cooperation for safe nuclear energy development.

Organizational Structure

The IAEA operates through a well-defined institutional structure:

• General Conference: Comprising representatives from all member states, it is the highest policymaking body. It meets annually to approve the IAEA’s budget and programs, and to debate general policy.
• Board of Governors: Consists of 35 member states (13 designated by the outgoing Board for their advancement in nuclear technology, and 22 elected by the General Conference for a two-year term). It meets multiple times a year, responsible for carrying out the Agency’s statutory functions, approving safeguards agreements, and appointing the Director General (with General Conference approval).
• Secretariat: Headed by the Director General, who is the chief administrative officer. The Secretariat comprises multidisciplinary professional and support staff responsible for the day-to-day operations of the IAEA across its various departments (e.g., Safeguards, Nuclear Energy, Nuclear Safety and Security, Technical Cooperation).
• Director General: The current Director General is Rafael Mariano Grossi

Key functions

1. Promoting Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy:

• The IAEA encourages and assists in the research, development, and practical application of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, such as energy production, medicine, agriculture, and water resource management.
• It provides technical assistance to member states, particularly developing countries, to help them utilize nuclear technologies for sustainable development and address challenges related to health, food security, water resources, and environmental protection. 

2. Nuclear Verification and Safeguards:

• The IAEA verifies that nuclear materials and facilities are used only for peaceful purposes by applying safeguards, which include monitoring, inspection, and information analysis. 
• The IAEA implements comprehensive safeguards agreements, mandated by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), to ensure that non-nuclear weapon states adhere to their obligations. 

3. Nuclear Safety and Security:

• The IAEA develops and promotes nuclear safety standards for facilities and activities involving nuclear materials, aiming to minimize risks to human health and the environment. 
• It works to enhance the security of nuclear materials and facilities, both nationally and internationally, to prevent incidents of theft, sabotage, or unauthorized access. 
• The IAEA assists member states in building capacity to respond to nuclear and radiological emergencies, minimizing their potential impact. 

4. Other Key Functions:

• The IAEA facilitates the exchange of scientific and technical information among member states to promote knowledge sharing and collaboration. 
• The IAEA’s Office of Legal Affairs provides legal support to member states and the agency itself in the development and implementation of nuclear law and related activities. 
• The IAEA serves as a key intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. 

Critical Analysis

Achievements

• Global Nuclear Safety Standards: Led creation of a uniform global framework on radiation safety and reactor operation.

• Non-Proliferation Successes: Detected and deterred clandestine nuclear activities in several states.
• Peaceful Applications: Supported nuclear medicine, agriculture, and clean energy solutions in developing countries.
• Crisis Response: Rapid deployment of monitoring and advisory teams after incidents like Fukushima and Chernobyl.
• Diplomatic Engagement: Instrumental in facilitating and verifying the Iran Nuclear Deal (JCPOA).

Failures 

• Limited Enforcement Power: The IAEA can report violations, but lacks the authority to impose sanctions or enforcement.
• North Korea Withdrawal: Failed to prevent DPRK from withdrawing from the NPT and conducting nuclear tests.
• Political Influence: Accusations of bias and Western interference, especially in dealing with Iran and Iraq.
• Transparency Concerns: Limited public access to detailed inspection data due to confidentiality agreements with member states.
• Nuclear Security Gap: Inadequate role in preventing nuclear terrorism or securing orphan radioactive sources.

Steps needed for improvement in IAEA functioning

1. Strengthen Enforcement Powers
   • IAEA should be empowered possibly through UN Security Council backing to enforce compliance and penalize violations of safeguard agreements, rather than just report them.
2. Universal Safeguards Compliance
   • Push for universal application of safeguards, even in countries outside the NPT (like India, Israel, Pakistan), to address concerns of non-uniformity and discrimination.
3. Independent Verification Framework
   • Reduce political influence by making IAEA operations more transparent, evidence-driven, and insulated from geopolitical pressure, especially from P5 nations.
4. Improve Crisis Response Mechanisms
   • Develop a dedicated nuclear crisis task force for rapid deployment during war/conflict zones or disasters, equipped with real-time radiation monitoring and mobile labs.
5. Expand Nuclear Security Mandate
   • Broaden its role in tackling nuclear terrorism threats, illicit trafficking, and improving cybersecurity of nuclear installations worldwide.
6. Increase Technical Support for Developing Nations
   • Scale up IAEA’s technical cooperation programs in non-nuclear weapon states to build trust and promote peaceful use of atomic energy.
7. Regular Auditing of Nuclear Facilities
   • Mandate frequent and surprise inspections, especially for high-risk facilities, including those under political or military tension.

Conclusion

The IAEA remains central to global nuclear governance, balancing its dual role of promoting peaceful atomic energy and preventing nuclear weapons proliferation. However, the evolving nature of geopolitical conflicts, especially the Iran–Israel–US confrontation, exposes its structural and political limitations.

For the IAEA to remain effective in the 21st century, it must modernize its tools, assert its autonomy, and expand its operational and technical capabilities.

Mains Practice Question

Q “The IAEA plays a critical role in global nuclear governance, but its mandate and tools are inadequate.” Critically examine. (250 words, 15 marks)

Introduction (Context)

Recently, the United States has launched airstrikes on three major Iranian nuclear sites — Fordow, Isfahan, and Natanz. These attacks followed similar strikes by Israel earlier in the same week, which also targeted Iran’s nuclear infrastructure, notably the Natanz facility.

The facilities targeted are key uranium enrichment centres, critical to Iran’s ability to produce Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU) — material with potential use in nuclear weapons. The strikes raised fears of a nuclear explosion or radiation disaster.

About the Nuclear Facilities

• Fordow, Isfahan and Natanz nuclear facilities are uranium enrichment sites that house the infrastructure to convert natural uranium into highly-enriched uranium (HEU) that can potentially be used to make a nuclear bomb.
• Enrichment is the process of increasing the concentration of Uranium-235 (U235) in a sample of natural uranium which is primarily more than 99 per cent Uranium-238 (U238). 
• It is only U-235 that is fissile, meaning its nucleus is susceptible to being broken (fissionable) through a process that produces energy, and is capable of sustaining a chain reaction. An enrichment of 3-5 per cent is adequate for producing electricity in nuclear power stations, but for making nuclear weapons, HEU, which has concentrations of 90 per cent or more of U235, is required.

However, the attack did not led to nuclear explosion.

Why There Was No Nuclear Explosion

• Nuclear weapons require precise triggering mechanisms to initiate a chain reaction.
• The explosion occurs when U-235 or Plutonium-239 nuclei undergo uncontrolled fission, releasing massive energy.
• This process demands Specific geometric arrangement of fissile material and precise timing and conditions for neutron initiation.
• Strikes on nuclear facilities cannot trigger such a controlled reaction, as:
  • The material is not in weapons-ready form.
  • The infrastructure required to trigger the explosion is not present.
  • Fissile material under stress or attack cannot detonate like a bomb.

Difference Between Nuclear Bombs and Traditional Explosives

Traditional Explosives

• Traditional bombs use chemical explosives like TNT, RDX, etc.
• These bombs are designed to explode on impact, such as when dropped from an aircraft or launched from a missile.
• It can also detonate due to heat, pressure, or friction. This makes them prone to accidental explosions, even in storage.
• Stored chemical explosives can detonate if struck by other weapons or fire.

Nuclear Weapons

• Nuclear weapons release energy through a nuclear fission or fusion reaction, not through chemical combustion.
• They are designed to detonate mid-air, not upon physical impact.
• The explosion occurs in milliseconds, heating the surrounding air to millions of degrees Celsius.
• The heat causes the air to rapidly expand, generating blast waves that cause most of the physical destruction.
• Nuclear detonations emit electromagnetic radiation (including gamma rays), contributing to massive damage beyond the immediate blast.

Threat of Nuclear Radiation

• Nuclear facilities, by their very nature, store a lot of radioactive substances such as Uranium in solid, liquid, and gaseous forms, Uranium hexafluoride (UF6) used in gas centrifuges, which is toxic and reactive and radioactive dust and waste from enrichment processes.
• Radioactive substances are unstable and release radiation over time. Some of these radiations, like gamma rays, are extremely harmful. They can penetrate the skin, damage cells and DNA, and can cause cancer.
• These radioactive substances are stored, and handled, in carefully designed containers in any nuclear facility. These facilities are constructed in ways to minimise the risk of any leak of radioactive substances in outer environment or in sources of water or food.
• Nuclear radiation refers to the energy and particles released from the nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay. This radiation can be in the form of electromagnetic waves or high-speed charged particles. 
• Types of Radiation: Nuclear radiation can be categorized into different types, including: 

• • Alpha particles: Relatively large, positively charged particles that can be stopped by a sheet of paper or clothing. 
  • Beta particles: High-speed electrons or positrons that can penetrate a few millimeters of aluminum. 
  • Gamma rays: High-energy electromagnetic waves that can pass through many materials and require dense materials like lead for shielding. 
  • Neutrons: Subatomic particles that can penetrate materials and cause further reactions. 

Impact of nuclear radiation

Health Impacts on Humans

1. Cellular and DNA Damage
   • Radiation, especially gamma rays, can penetrate deep into the body, damaging cells and altering DNA.
   • This leads to mutations, cancers, and genetic defects.
2. Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS)
   • High doses over a short period cause nausea, vomiting, skin burns, internal bleeding, and may lead to death.
3. Long-Term Effects
   • Prolonged exposure to lower doses increases the risk of leukemia, thyroid cancer, and other malignancies.
   • Children and fetuses are especially vulnerable to developmental disorders.
4. Reproductive and Genetic Effects
   • Exposure may cause infertility, miscarriages, or heritable genetic mutations passed to future generations.
5. Psychosocial Effects
   • Fear of exposure and displacement often causes anxiety, depression, and social trauma, as seen post-Chernobyl and Fukushima.

Environmental Impacts

1. Air Contamination
   • Radioactive isotopes (like Cesium-137, Iodine-131) can disperse in the atmosphere, affecting vast areas.
2. Soil and Water Pollution
   • Radiation can contaminate soil, rendering land unusable for agriculture for decades.
   • Leaching into groundwater or rivers leads to long-term ecological toxicity.
3. Impact on Flora and Fauna
   • Radiation can cause mutations in animals and plants, disrupt food chains, and reduce biodiversity.
   • Some species may die off or exhibit abnormalities over generations.
4. Bioaccumulation in Food Chains
   • Radioactive elements accumulate in organisms (like fish or livestock), entering the human food chain and posing chronic health risks.
5. Long-Term Ecological Inaccessibility
   • Heavily contaminated zones (like Chernobyl Exclusion Zone) remain uninhabitable for decades to centuries, altering human settlement patterns.

Examples

• Chernobyl (1986): Massive release of radioactive materials led to widespread cancer and ecological damage across Europe.
• Fukushima (2011): Tsunami-triggered reactor meltdown caused leakage into air and Pacific Ocean, raising global concerns.
• Marshall Islands (1950s): US nuclear tests caused long-term genetic damage and made entire islands uninhabitable.

Value addition: USA used Bunker Buster for attack

GBU-57 MOP (‘Bunker Buster’)

• Designed to destroy deeply buried and fortified underground targets, including WMD sites.
• It is considered the most powerful non-nuclear bomb.
• Specifications: 

• Length: ~20.5 feet; Diameter: ~31.5 inches.
• Weight: ~13,000 kg.
• Penetration: Up to 60 metres of earth before detonation.

B-2 Spirit Stealth Bomber

• Strategic stealth bomber designed to penetrate enemy air defenses and deploy precision-guided munitions.
• It is the only aircraft capable of carrying two MOPs simultaneously.
• Known for its stealth capability (low radar, visual, acoustic, and infrared signature).
• Range: ~9,600 km (unrefueled), >19,000 km (with mid-air refueling).
• Enhances US nuclear deterrence and strategic strike capability without using nuclear weapons.
• Its stealth and long-range abilities make it one of the most potent offensive air assets globally.

Conclusion

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is the global nuclear watchdog. After the strikes, the IAEA confirmed there is no off-site radiation increase and continuous monitoring is underway to assess safety. The IAEA also plays a crucial role in inspecting nuclear facilities, ensuring compliance with safety protocols and responding to radiation emergencies.

Mains Practice Question

Q Discuss how nuclear weapons differ from conventional explosives in their functioning and strategic impact. (250 words, 15 marks)

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