Category: POLITY

Context:  Assam held elections for the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC), which governs five districts in the Bodoland Territorial Region bordering Bhutan. 

The BTC election saw a triangular contest among the United People’s Party Liberal (UPPL), Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and Bodoland People’s Front (BPF). A total of 316 candidates are in the fray for 40 constituencies, with key leaders like Pramod Boro (UPPL) and Hagrama Mohilary (BPF) contesting. The results will be declared on September 26.

Learning Corner:

Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC):

• Formation: The BTC was formed in 2003 under the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution after the signing of the Bodo Accord between the Government of India, Government of Assam, and Bodo Liberation Tigers.
• Jurisdiction: It governs the Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR), comprising four districts initially (Kokrajhar, Baksa, Chirang, Udalguri), later reorganized into five districts. The area is along Assam’s border with Bhutan.
• Structure:
  • It has 40 elected members and 6 nominated by the Governor of Assam.
  • The BTC enjoys legislative, executive, and administrative powers in 40 subjects, including land, forests, agriculture, education, and culture.
• Significance:
  • Provides autonomy and self-governance for the Bodo people within Assam.
  • Aims to protect and promote the social, cultural, linguistic, and ethnic identity of the Bodos while ensuring development in the region.
• Recent Developments:
  • The 2020 Bodo Accord renamed BTC’s area as the Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) and expanded its scope of development initiatives.

Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution:

• Context & Purpose:
  • The Sixth Schedule (Articles 244(2) and 275(1)) was incorporated to provide autonomous administration for certain tribal-dominated areas in the North-Eastern states.
  • It seeks to protect the distinct culture, traditions, and administrative practices of tribal communities while ensuring their socio-economic development.
• Applicable States:
  • Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.
• Institutions Created:
  • Autonomous District Councils (ADCs): Each district has its own council with 30 members (26 elected, 4 nominated by the Governor).
  • Regional Councils: For smaller tribal groups within the districts.
• Powers & Functions:
  • Legislative powers over subjects like land, forests (other than reserved forests), shifting cultivation, village administration, inheritance of property, marriage and divorce, social customs, etc.
  • Executive powers to run departments like education, health, and local governance.
  • Judicial powers through village and district courts for cases involving tribals.
  • Financial powers include levy of taxes, fees, and receiving grants from the state government.
• Significance:
  • Provides a unique model of self-governance within India’s federal structure.
  • Balances tribal autonomy with the unity of the Indian Union.

Source: THE HINDU

Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Context : Scientists are exploring light-based (optical) computing to overcome the speed and energy limitations of conventional electronics, especially for AI. Recent research found that nonlinear interactions of light in optical fibres can perform AI tasks faster and more efficiently.

Optical computing uses photons instead of electrons, making it faster, more energy-efficient, and capable of handling massive data transfers. Researchers from Finland and France showed that intense light pulses in optical fibres can process AI tasks using physics rather than traditional algorithms. Their experiments trained AI models using optical signals, achieving high accuracy with lower energy use. While challenges remain, this breakthrough could revolutionize AI, offering unprecedented speed and efficiency for future computing.

Learning Corner:

Optical Fibres:

• Definition: Optical fibres are thin, flexible strands of glass or plastic that transmit data as pulses of light.
• Working Principle: They function on the principle of total internal reflection, where light signals bounce within the core of the fibre without escaping, allowing data to travel long distances with minimal loss.
• Structure:
  • Core: The innermost part where light travels.
  • Cladding: Surrounds the core and reflects light back into it.
  • Buffer Coating: Provides protection and strength.
• Types:

1. Single-mode fibres: Narrow core, transmit light directly, used for long-distance communication.
2. Multi-mode fibres: Larger core, multiple light paths, used for short distances.

• Applications:
  1. High-speed internet and telecommunication networks.
  2. Medical imaging (endoscopy).
  3. Defense and aerospace communication.
  4. Emerging uses in optical computing and AI.
• Advantages:
  1. High bandwidth and faster data transfer.
  2. Low signal loss and immune to electromagnetic interference.
  3. Lightweight and durable.

Source:  THE HINDU

Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Context: Astronomers have discovered a new asteroid, 2025 PN7, which follows an orbit similar to Earth’s and is classified as a quasi-moon.

Quasi-moons and mini-moons are small celestial objects that temporarily accompany Earth in its orbit. The newly observed quasi-moon, 2025 PN7, spotted this summer, could be the smallest of its kind at under 52 feet. Such objects often originate from the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter or as debris from the Moon. Unlike permanent moons, they are temporary companions, staying for decades before drifting away. Earth has had similar followers before, with quasi-moons providing opportunities for research and possible future space missions.

Learning Corner:

Quasi-moons and Mini-moons:

• Mini-moons:
  • Small natural objects that temporarily orbit Earth.
  • Unlike the permanent Moon, they are short-term companions, often staying a few months to years.
  • Many are captured asteroids or chunks of the Moon ejected after meteorite impacts.
  • Example: 2006 RH120, a mini-moon that orbited Earth for about a year.
• Quasi-moons:
  • Objects that orbit the Sun, but follow a path very similar to Earth’s orbit, appearing like companions.
  • They are not true satellites but remain in Earth’s vicinity for decades in a stable gravitational “dance.”
  • Example: 2025 PN7 (recently spotted), 469219 Kamo‘oalewa (discovered in 2016).
  • They maintain a constant average distance from Earth, often staying in a resonant orbital pattern.
• Significance:
  • Both are temporary companions of Earth.
  • Useful for scientific studies, space missions, and potential resource exploration, as they are relatively close and easier to reach than main-belt asteroids.

Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: INTERNATIONAL

Context Russia has proposed a one-year extension to the New START nuclear arms control treaty with the US, set to expire in February 2026.

President Vladimir Putin offered the US a one-year extension of the New START treaty, the last remaining nuclear arms pact between the two nations, which limits each side to 1,550 deployed strategic nuclear warheads. Russia said it is willing to continue adhering to the treaty while negotiations proceed, but warned that the offer is conditional on the US not imposing unilateral conditions or undermining Russia’s defense capabilities. The move comes amid heightened US-Russia tensions, particularly over Ukraine, and growing global concerns about arms control.

Learning Corner:

Major nuclear treaties between USA and Russia

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 1968

• Not bilateral, but both USA and USSR were key signatories.
• Aimed to prevent spread of nuclear weapons, promote peaceful use of nuclear energy, and work toward disarmament.

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I & II)

• SALT I (1972): Limited the number of Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) and Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs). Also led to Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty restricting missile defense systems.
• SALT II (1979): Proposed limits on nuclear delivery systems, but never formally ratified due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. However, both sides largely adhered to it informally.

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, 1987

• Signed by Reagan (US) and Gorbachev (USSR).
• Eliminated all land-based missiles with ranges between 500–5,500 km.
• First treaty to eliminate an entire category of nuclear weapons.
• The US withdrew in 2019, citing Russian violations.

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties (START I & II)

• START I (1991): Reduced deployed strategic nuclear warheads to 6,000 on each side.
• START II (1993): Banned multiple warheads (MIRVs) on ICBMs but never entered into force.

Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT) / Moscow Treaty, 2002

• Signed by Bush (US) and Putin (Russia).
• Limited operationally deployed warheads to 1,700–2,200.

New START Treaty, 2010

• Signed by Obama (US) and Medvedev (Russia).
• Limits deployed strategic warheads to 1,550 and delivery systems to 700.
• Set to expire in February 2026 after a 5-year extension agreed in 2021.
• Currently the last remaining nuclear arms control treaty between the two powers.

Significance:

• These treaties helped reduce Cold War tensions and massive nuclear stockpiles.
• However, with the collapse of the INF Treaty and expiry of New START looming, the future of nuclear arms control is uncertain.

Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: ECONOMICS

Context: SEBI is considering allowing Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) to trade in non-agricultural commodity derivatives to deepen India’s market.

The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has proposed to let FPIs trade in cash-settled, non-agricultural commodity derivatives such as gold, silver, zinc, and other base metals. Currently, FPIs can only participate in non-agri derivatives like natural gas and crude oil through financial contracts, but not in ferrous and precious metals. The move is expected to generate liquidity, extend market depth, improve price discovery, and attract greater institutional participation. Experts believe this reform will boost India’s commodity markets by reducing hedging costs and aligning them with global practices.

Learning Corner:

Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI):

• Definition: Investment by foreign investors in a country’s financial assets such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and derivatives, without taking direct control of business entities.
• Nature:
  • Short-term, volatile, and often speculative (“hot money”).
  • Easier entry and exit compared to FDI.
• Regulator in India: SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India).
• Example: A foreign institutional investor buying shares in Infosys or Reliance.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI):

• Definition: Investment by a foreign entity in a business in another country with ownership, control, or management participation.
• Nature:
  • Long-term and relatively stable.
  • Involves setting up factories, offices, or acquiring stakes in companies.
• Regulator in India: DPIIT (Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade) and RBI.
• Example: Walmart acquiring majority stake in Flipkart; Hyundai setting up manufacturing plants in India.

Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Introduction (Context)

World Patient Safety Day (17 September) emphasizes raising awareness and improving patient safety, including prevention of  Hospital-Acquired Infections.

HAIs are a significant source of avoidable harm in healthcare settings globally, impacting patient safety, morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs.

What is Hospital-Acquired Infections?

• According to WHO (2002) HAIs are an infection occurring in a patient in a hospital or other health care facility in whom the infection was not present or incubating at the time of admission
• They include infections appearing after discharge and occupational infections among healthcare staff.
• Typically, HAIs develop 48 hours after admission or within 30 days of surgery.

Types of infections

• HAIs can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi, with bacterial infections being the most common.
• Common bacterial infections include those caused by staph and strep bacteria. Some bacteria are resistant to common antibiotics, making infections harder to treat and more dangerous. These bacterial infections can affect the blood, lungs, or brain.

• • Fungal infections are commonly caused by Candida species, with rising multi-drug resistance.
  • Viral infections, though less common, include hepatitis viruses and HIV.

Mode of Transmission

• HAIs can be transmitted via respiratory droplets.
• They can spread when proper sterilisation and infection control procedures are not followed. Contaminated equipment can act as a source of infection.
• Infections can occur during invasive procedures.
• Endogenous flora (microorganisms naturally present in the body) can cause HAIs.

Examples:

• Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infection (CLABSI): Infection occurs when germs enter the bloodstream through a central line or catheter placed in a major vein; these lines remain longer than peripheral IVs.
• Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection (CAUTI): Infection occurs when pathogens enter the urinary tract; it can affect any part of the urinary system.
• Surgical Site Infection (SSI): Infection occurs at the site of surgery; it can affect skin, tissue, organs, or implanted materials.
• Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia (VAP): Lung infection that develops in patients on ventilators.

Status in India

• In India, healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) remain a significant public health concern, especially in tertiary care hospitals and intensive care units (ICUs).
• A study published in The Lancet Global Health in 2022 surveyed 26 tertiary-level hospitals across India, involving 89 ICUs. The study recorded 2,622 healthcare-associated bloodstream infections and 737 urinary tract infections (UTIs) over the period from May 2017 to October 2018.
• Among these infections, central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) were most prevalent in neonatal ICUs, while catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI) were highest in pediatric medical ICUs.
• The study also highlighted high levels of resistance to Carbapenems, a critical class of antibiotics, posing additional treatment challenges.
• India, being a low- and middle-income country (LMIC), faces an HAI risk that can be up to 20 times higher compared to high-income countries.

Challenges in India

• Insufficient number of trained healthcare staff
• Limited availability and inappropriate use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
• Inadequate sanitation and hygiene practices.
• High patient overcrowding in hospitals, increasing the likelihood of infection transmission.
• Many secondary and district-level hospitals, both public and private, lack robust infection prevention and control measures, making patients more vulnerable to nosocomial infections.

Steps needed

• Ensure high-quality water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services across healthcare facilities to reduce infection risk.
  Implement WHO core IPC programmes, which include adherence to hand hygiene protocols, regular monitoring, and staff training.
• Maintain proper sterilization of instruments and medical equipment to prevent contamination and transmission of infectious agents.
• Regularly monitor and audit infection control practices to identify gaps and enforce corrective measures.
• Promote awareness and training among healthcare workers regarding infection risks, prevention strategies, and responsible antimicrobial use.
• Establish isolation protocols for patients with contagious infections to prevent cross-transmission within healthcare settings.
• Encourage multidisciplinary coordination between doctors, nurses, sanitation staff, and hospital management to ensure comprehensive IPC implementation.

Conclusion

Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) are a major public health challenge that significantly impact patient safety, morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. Effective infection prevention and control measures are essential to reduce HAIs, combat antimicrobial resistance, and improve overall healthcare quality in India.

Mains Practice Question

Q  Discuss the causes, risk factors, and preventive strategies for Hospital-acquired infections, highlighting the role of Infection Prevention and Control (IPC) measures. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/health/all-you-need-to-know-about-hospital-acquired-infections/article70060524.ece

Introduction (Context)

India’s Digital India initiative, launched in 2015, marked a strategic effort to transform the country’s digital ecosystem, enhance governance, and ensure inclusive socio-economic development. Over the past decade, it has expanded internet access, improved service delivery, and strengthened India’s digital economy.

As most African nations are poised for digital transformation, the Indian experience could offer them a cost-effective and contextually relevant model. 

India’s Digital transformation data

• Internet users increased from 251 million in 2014 to nearly 970 million in 2024.
• Over 2,18,000 villages connected with high-speed networks.
• Digital infrastructure enabled telemedicine, tele-education, and e-governance services at scale
• Contributes approximately USD 200 billion annually; 11.74% of India’s GDP (2022–23).
• Key sectors benefiting include fintech, e-commerce, health-tech, and agri-tech.

Africa Digital Economy

• Internet penetration increased from 2.1 per cent in 2005 to approximately 38 per cent in 2024. 
• In 2023, the mobile industry contributed $140 billion, or 7 per cent, to the GDP of the region, a number which is expected to grow to $170 billion by 2030. 
• The continent has also established itself as a leader in mobile financial services, with half of the world’s mobile money providers based in sub-Saharan Africa.

Challenges

• Low internet penetration and limited broadband connectivity in rural and remote areas
• Inadequate digital infrastructure, including data centers, reliable electricity, and network coverage
• High cost of digital devices and internet services, limiting accessibility for marginalized populations.
• Fragmented and underdeveloped regulatory and policy frameworks for digital governance.
• Shortage of skilled workforce in ICT, data science, AI, and other emerging digital technologies.
• Weak cybersecurity frameworks and limited awareness of online safety and data protection.
• Insufficient integration of digital solutions with public service delivery, healthcare, and education systems.

India-Africa digital initiatives

• India-Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) facilitating dialogue, Lines of Credit (LoCs), grants, and technical support for digital projects.
• In 2009, India launched the Pan Africa e-Network, a continent-wide initiative facilitating tele-education and telemedicine services. Building upon this, the e-VidyaBharti (Tele-education) and e-ArogyaBharti (Tele-medicine) project (e-VBAB) was initiated in 2019 to further integrate African students and patients with Indian academic and medical institutions.
• Under the e-VBAB scheme, in the last few years, thousands of scholarships have been offered to African students for higher education in Indian universities. 
• India has established IT Centres in Kenya, Botswana, Uganda, Tanzania, and Ghana to promote digital skills.
• Established cyber Tower in Mauritius to strengthen ICT infrastructure and training capabilities.
• Established Kofi Annan Centre of Excellence in ICT, Ghana, supporting ICT skill development.
• Established Centre of Excellence in Information Technology at Al Azhar University, Egypt, promoting digital skills among youth.
• Established Overseas IIT campus in Zanzibar, Tanzania (2023) offering advanced programs in Data Science and Artificial Intelligence.
• Xtelify, Bharti Airtel’s subsidiary, signed a multi-year, multi-million-dollar deal with Nigeria to deploy AI-powered platforms, boosting telecom infrastructure, operational efficiency, and customer service across 14 African countries.
• Promotion of Indian start-ups in fintech, health-tech, and agri-tech to collaborate with African enterprises.
• Organising Study tours by African delegations to learn India’s digital payments and public distribution system models.
• Sharing India’s Aadhaar digital identity system as a model for inclusive governance and financial inclusion.
• With a median age of approximately 19 years, Africa possesses the youngest population globally. However, to harness this demographic advantage, substantial investment in digital skill development would be required. Hence, promoted Skill development programs inspired by India’s Skill India, Digital Saksharta Abhiyan, and ITEC for vocational training and digital literacy.

Way forward

• Strengthen India-Africa collaboration to promote inclusive development and mutual capacity-building.
• Leverage joint technological expertise to support Africa’s digital infrastructure and governance systems.
• Foster South-South cooperation in the context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
• Encourage policy frameworks that are flexible, scalable, and adaptable to local contexts.
• Promote strategic partnerships between governments, educational institutions, and the private sector to drive innovation.

Conclusion

India’s successful deployment of digital technologies for inclusive governance provides a replicable model for African nations. With strong political will, flexible policy frameworks, and strategic cooperation, India and Africa are well-placed to co-create a future where digital innovation drives socio-economic progress across the Global South.

Mains Practice Question

Q  Examine how India’s digital transformation can serve as a model for Africa. Discuss the lessons and strategies for fostering inclusive digital development across the continent. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: https://indianexpress.com/article/upsc-current-affairs/upsc-essentials/how-indias-digital-journey-offers-a-replicable-model-to-africa-10259773/

Introduction (Context)

Primary Health Centre (PHC) doctors form the backbone of India’s public health system. For millions in rural and remote regions, they are the only accessible face of healthcare. 

Their role extends beyond clinical care to community health, programme implementation, and policy execution.  They serve not merely as doctors but also as planners, coordinators and leaders. 

Significance of PHC doctors

• PHC doctors are not merely health providers; they are the anchors of community well-being and the crucial link between national health programmes and rural populations.
• A PHC typically serves a diverse population of around 30,000 people (in hilly and tribal regions, it is around 20,000 people) and in urban areas, it stretches to 50,000 people. 
• They deliver services across all age groups and specialties such as newborn care, maternal health, geriatrics, infectious diseases, trauma, mental health, and non-communicable diseases.
• Their work draws upon the founding principles of primary health care: equitable access, community involvement, intersectoral coordination, and pragmatic use of technology.
• They coordinate immunisation campaigns, conduct door-to-door surveys, manage vector control, run school health programmes along with Medical Officers from the Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK), and respond to field outbreaks. 
• They organise health education sessions, engage in inter-sectoral meetings, and participate in gram sabhas to promote community health.
• They train and supervise ASHAs, ANMs, and village health workers; visit Anganwadis and sub-centres to ensure effective outreach.
• They act as the last-mile implementers of schemes like Ayushman Bharat, bridging the gap between government intent and grassroots realities.

Challenges faced by PHC doctors

Overburden of PHC doctors

• A PHC doctor handles around 100 patients daily, including large antenatal loads, while also meeting programme targets.
• Unlike specialists, they must treat across all domains from newborns to geriatrics and emergencies while keeping up with new guidelines. 
• The heavy workload leaves little time for learning or research.

Administrative Overload

• Doctors have to maintain 100+ physical registers covering outpatient records, maternal and child health, drug inventory, sanitation, and more.
• They have to do data entry in digital platforms such as the Integrated Health Information Platform (IHIP), Population Health Registry (PHR), Ayushman Bharat Portal, Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP), Health Management Information System (HMIS), and UWIN for immunisation.leading to duplicate data entry.
• Despite digitalisation, paper records persist, resulting in a double burden of documentation.
• Many doctors work late into the night to complete reporting, effectively adding a “second shift” of paperwork.

Burnout

• Burnout is a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion caused by prolonged stress and overwork.
• Physicians are tasked with delivering quality care, driving national programmes, and maintaining detailed documentation, with little staffing, compensation, or recognition.
• The Lancet calls physician burnout a global public health crisis with emotional exhaustion, detachment, and a sense of futility.
• WHO’s ICD-11 recognises burnout as an occupational issue needing systemic solutions, not just medical fixes.
• A WHO Bulletin study shows nearly one-third of primary care doctors in low- and middle-income countries suffer emotional exhaustion.
• A Saudi Arabian study found administrative overload is a major cause of burnout among PHC doctors.

Global Experiences & Lessons

• 25 by 5 Campaign (USA) aims to reduce clinician documentation time by 75% by 2025 through automation and simplification.
• Countries like Denmark and the UK have strengthened primary care teams by delegating non-clinical work to administrative staff.

Steps needed

• Shift the system from compliance to facilitation, focusing on supporting doctors instead of overloading them with checklists and targets.
• Remove redundant paper registers and create single-entry digital platforms to avoid duplicate data entry.
• Use automation, AI, and mobile health tools to capture data and reduce manual documentation.
• Recruit data entry operators, administrative staff, and public health managers so doctors can focus on patient care.
• Expand the roles of nurses, ANMs, and pharmacists to share routine clinical and outreach work.
• Provide mental health support, counselling services, and regular rest breaks to protect doctors from burnout.

Conclusion

Primary health care is the gateway to Universal Health Coverage (UHC), enshrined in Target 3.8 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). It promises access to essential health services, safe medicines, and financial protection. Without strong PHCs, SDG 3, which aims to ensure health and well-being for all, will remain aspirational.

Mains Practice Question

Q  Examine the challenges faced by PHC doctors and suggest reforms to strengthen primary health care delivery in India. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/phc-doctors-a-case-where-the-caregivers-need-care/article70081550.ece