• Context:
  • The Andhra Pradesh government has drawn up plans to develop greenfield airports at Srikakulam, Bhogapuram, Tuni–Annavaram, Tadepalligudem, Ongole, Dagadarthi, Kuppam and Nagarjuna Sagar.

  About Greenfield Projects:

  • A greenfield airport is a new aviation facility built from scratch on previously undeveloped land.
  • India’s first Greenfield airport built in the northeastern region is Pakyong Airport, located in Sikkim.
  • The development of Greenfield airports is regulated by the Greenfield Airports (GFA) Policy, 2008.
  • As per the Policy, a State Government or an Airport Developer, willing to establish an airport is required to send a proposal to the Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA) for 2-stage approval i.e. ‘Site-Clearance’ followed by ‘In-Principle’ approval.

  Advantages of Greenfield Projects:

  • Engineers do not have to spend time tearing down old buildings, making the construction process faster and more efficient.
  • Enhances regional and international air travel.
  • Helps decongest existing airports in urban areas.
  • Encourages investment and trade in surrounding regions.
  • Can be planned with eco-friendly measures like green energy and sustainable construction.

  Source:

  • THE HINDU

Context:

• The Supreme Court Collegium headed by Chief Justice of India B.R. Gavai on Monday recommended the elevation of the Chief Justices of the Bombay and Patna High Courts, Justices Alok Aradhe and Vipul Manubhai Pancholi, respectively, as top court judges.

Appointment of judges in HCs and SC:

• The Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President under clause (2) of Article 124 of the Constitution.
• Judges of the higher judiciary are appointed through the collegium system. The term “collegium” is not mentioned in the Indian Constitution but has been established through judicial pronouncements.
• Salaries, allowances, privileges, leave, and pension of Supreme Court judges are determined by Parliament. The Salaries, Pension, and Allowances of the Supreme Court Judges are charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India.
• After retirement, a judge of the Supreme Court is prohibited from practicing law in any court in India or pleading before any government authority.

Evolution of Collegium System:

• First Judges Case (1981): It declared that the “primacy” of the CJI’s (Chief Justice of India) recommendation on judicial appointments and transfers can be refused for “cogent reasons.”
• Second Judges Case (1993): It introduced the Collegium system, holding that “consultation” really meant “concurrence”. It added that it was not the CJI’s individual opinion, but an institutional opinion formed in consultation with the two senior-most judges in the Supreme Court.
• Third Judges Case (1998): SC on the President’s reference (Article 143) expanded the Collegium to a five-member body, comprising the CJI and four of his senior-most colleagues.

Source:

• THE HINDU

• Context:
  • A group of 18 retired judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts have penned a joint statement against Home Minister Amit Shah’s remarks on the Supreme Court’s Salwa Judum judgment, saying that such “prejudicial misinterpretation” will have a “chilling effect on the judges of the Supreme Court, shaking the independence of the judiciary”.

  About Salwa Judum:

  • Meaning “Peace March” or “Purification Hunt” in the language of the Gonds, the Salwa Judum was a militia specifically mobilised with the intention of countering the Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) or naxalism in the Chhattisgarh region.
  • It consisted of local tribal youth mobilized for resistance against outlawed armed naxalites. The group was reportedly backed by government machinery in Chhattisgarh.
  • There were reports that Salwa Judum forcibly recruited minor boys for its armed forces. According to a survey by the Forum for Fact-finding Documentation and Advocacy (FFDA), over 12,000 minors were being used by the Salwa Judum in the southern district of Dantewada.
  • The Salwa Judum displaced large numbers of villagers. They even killed those that refused to leave, accusing them of being naxalite collaborators.
  • Following a number of petitions, the Supreme Court ordered the state government in 2008 to refrain from allegedly supporting and encouraging the Salwa Judum.
  • In 2011, the Supreme Court of India in a case filed by Nandini Sundar and others declared the militia to be illegal and unconstitutional, and ordered its disbanding. However, despite the order, the Salwa Judum remains a part of the auxiliary force of the state police.

  Other government initiatives to control Left-Wing Extremism (LWE):

  • SAMADHAN doctrine is the one-stop solution for the LWE problem. It encompasses the entire strategy of government from short-term policy to long-term policy formulated at different levels. SAMADHAN stands for-
    • S- Smart Leadership
    • A- Aggressive Strategy
    • M- Motivation and Training
    • A- Actionable Intelligence
    • D- Dashboard Based KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) and KRAs (Key Result Areas)
    • H- Harnessing Technology
    • A- Action plan for each Theatre
    • N- No access to Financing
  • The national strategy to counter LWE was formed in 2015 as a multipronged approach to combat LWE. Its main aim was to ensure participatory governance and protection of the rights of local tribals, inter alia.
  • Operation Green Hunt was started in 2009-10 and massive deployment of security forces was done in the naxal-affected areas.

  Source:

  • THE HINDU

Context:

• The Supreme Court on Monday constituted a Special Investigation Team (SIT) chaired by a former top court judge, Justice J. Chelameswar, to conduct an “independent factual appraisal” of complaints and allegations of violations raised against Vantara, a zoological rescue and rehabilitation centre conceptualised by Anant Ambani at Gujarat’s Jamnagar.

About Vantara:

• Vantara (meaning Star of the Forest) is a private, non-commercial wildlife rescue and rehabilitation centre.
• Developed by the Reliance Foundation, it is led by Anant Ambani as a philanthropic initiative under Reliance Industries.
• Located inside the Jamnagar Refinery Township, Gujarat, it spans 3,500 acres in Motikhavdi village, Jamnagar district.
• It was inaugurated in March 2025 and it aims to provide care, conservation, and rehabilitation for injured, abandoned, and rescued animals.
• It contains Greens Zoological Rescue and Rehabilitation Centre (GZRRC), which covers around 650 acres with dedicated enclosures for big cats, reptiles, birds, and herbivores.
• It also has a specialised Elephant Centre, which is equipped with hydrotherapy pools, imaging systems, and recovery zones.
• It is the first-of-its-kind in India as it is the largest privately managed facility for animal welfare and biodiversity rescue.
• It is neither a zoo nor a safari park, as it is designed for rescue, not recreation.

Source:

• THE HINDU

• Context:
  • Under President Donald Trump, the United States has reset relations with west Africa’s military leaders on a mutual back-scratching basis, bartering help fighting jihadists for the Sahel region’s mining riches.

  About Sahel region:

  • The Sahel Region is a vast and arid stretch of land in Africa, characterized by a semi-arid climate, spanning the width of the continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. 
  • It is a semiarid region of western and north-central Africa, which stretches from Africa’s Atlantic Coast to the Red Sea for about 5,000 km.
  • It forms a transitional zone between the arid Sahara (desert) to the north and the belt of humid savannas to the south. 
  • It runs through portions of the countries of Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Sudan, and Eritrea.
  • The Sahel is a semiarid steppe, a type of dry grassland. 
  • The vegetation is chiefly of the savanna type, with little continuous cover. It has low-growing grass, thorny shrubs, and scattered acacia and baobab trees.
  • Historically, it has been a crossroads of commerce with ancient trade routes connecting Sub-Saharan Africa with North Africa and the Mediterranean world. Empires such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai flourished in this region, thriving on trans-Saharan trade, especially in gold, salt, and slaves. 
  • European colonization in the late 19th and early 20th centuries disrupted these historical dynamics, leading to modern borders that often ignored traditional tribal boundaries, sowing seeds for contemporary conflicts.

  Source:

  • THE HINDU

Introduction (Context)

The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has launched a major initiative to expand wastewater surveillance across 50 Indian cities, covering 10 viruses over the next six months. Currently, five cities are under monitoring. 

This move aims to build an early-warning system for outbreaks of infectious diseases like COVID-19, polio, influenza, and other viral threats.

What is Wastewater?

• Wastewater is used water that has been affected by domestic, industrial and commercial use. 
• The composition of wastewater is 99.9% water and the remaining 0.1% contains organic matter, microorganisms and inorganic compounds. 
• Wastewater effluents are released to a variety of environments, such as lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, estuaries and oceans. 
• Wastewater also includes storm runoff, as harmful substances wash off roads, parking lots and rooftops.

Types of waste water

• Blackwater: Wastewater from toilets containing faeces and urine; highly contaminated with pathogens.
• Greywater: Wastewater from showers, sinks, laundry, and kitchens; less polluted than blackwater.
• Yellow Water: Source-separated urine; nutrient-rich and useful as fertilizer after treatment.
• Brown Water: Faeces mixed with flush water but without urine; organic and pathogen-heavy.

Why Wastewater Treatment Matters?

Untreated wastewater is one of the biggest threats to both public health and the natural environment. Proper treatment is therefore crucial to prevent widespread harm and ensure safe water management.

Environmental Consequences

• Water Pollution: Harmful contaminants degrade water quality, making it unsafe for drinking, bathing, irrigation, and fishing.
• Ecosystem Damage: Excess nutrients can cause algal blooms that deplete oxygen, killing fish and other aquatic life. Toxic substances can also build up in the food chain, endangering animals and humans alike.
• Groundwater Risks: Wastewater that seeps into the soil may reach underground aquifers, polluting vital drinking water sources and requiring expensive clean-up measures.

Public Health Risks

• Waterborne Infections: Diseases like cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, and dysentery are linked to contaminated drinking water.
• Recreational Exposure: People coming into contact with polluted water through swimming or wading risk skin problems, stomach infections, and other illnesses.

Hence, the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) will initiate wastewater surveillance to identifying any increase in virus growth trend at the earliest,

What is Wastewater Surveillance?

• It involves collecting and testing sewage samples to detect viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens.
• Wastewater-Based Epidemiology (WBE) helps track disease spread in a community by analyzing biological traces (like viral RNA) in human waste.
• It is a non-invasive, cost-effective, and population-wide monitoring tool that provides insights even from asymptomatic carriers.

How ICMR will conduct surveillance?

• The initiative will track 10 different viruses, including:

• COVID-19 – still a public health concern due to mutations.
• Polio virus – essential for India’s polio-free status monitoring.
• Avian Influenza Virus (AIV) – linked with seasonal outbreaks and zoonotic transmission.
• Other pathogens causing fever, diarrhoea, acute encephalitis, and respiratory distress.

• The focus is on establishing a nationwide early-warning system by monitoring both wastewater and surface water in outbreak-prone areas.
• Process:

• Wastewater operators collect samples before treatment.
• Samples are sent to labs for testing viral/bacterial load.
• Results available within 5–7 days.
• Public health officials use wastewater data to better understand disease trends in communities and make decisions, such as providing guidance on how to prevent infections or increasing testing or vaccination options.

Other surveillance systems

India has robust surveillance for other illness also:

• Influenza-Like Illness (ILI) monitoring helps track seasonal flu patterns, detect unusual outbreaks, and monitor viral mutations.
• Severe Acute Respiratory Illness (SARI) surveillance helps identify severe respiratory disease outbreaks, including COVID-19 and influenza.
• The Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP), which collect, analyze, and respond to disease outbreak data. Covers both communicable and some non-communicable diseases for timely interventions.
• Wastewater and Environmental Surveillance (WES) involves testing sewage and water bodies affected by human waste for pathogens.

Advantages of Wastewater Surveillance

• Unlike individual medical testing, which requires time and resources, wastewater testing provides a population-wide snapshot of infections in one go.
• Many infected individuals may not show symptoms or may avoid testing, but they still shed pathogens in urine or faeces. Wastewater-Based Epidemiology (WBE) captures this “hidden data,” allowing early detection of disease spread that might otherwise remain unnoticed.
• By testing samples from specific locations or neighborhoods, authorities can pinpoint areas with higher infection loads.
• Wastewater data provides actionable insights to policymakers. This makes public health interventions proactive rather than reactive.
• Collecting and testing wastewater is far cheaper than conducting mass individual testing. It reduces the burden on health systems and allows continuous surveillance without large-scale disruptions.
• It also provides useful data to maintain ecosystem services and protect freshwater and marine ecosystems.

Way Forward

• Expand coverage to rural and peri-urban areas.
• Integrate wastewater data with digital health platforms for real-time tracking.
• Build laboratory and human resource capacity at district levels.
• Encourage global data-sharing mechanisms for early warning of cross-border health threats.
• Link with climate change and pollution monitoring frameworks for holistic action.

Conclusion

Wastewater surveillance represents a transformative approach in public health management. By turning sewage into a source of information, India can detect hidden infections, anticipate outbreaks, and safeguard both health and environment. 

The scaling up of this programme by ICMR is a timely step towards pandemic preparedness and sustainable disease surveillance.

Mains Practice Question

Q Wastewater-Based Epidemiology (WBE) has emerged as a powerful tool for public health and environmental management. Discuss its significance for India, while highlighting the challenges and way forward. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: What are the uses of wastewater surveillance? | Explained – The Hindu

Introduction (Context)

The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) recently announced that Open-Book Assessments (OBEs) will be introduced in Class IX from the 2026–27 academic session. While the reform is significant, it raises pertinent questions on readiness, implementation, and impact.

What is Open Book Assessment?

• An open-book assessment is a type of test or exam where students are permitted to use their notes, textbooks, or other approved materials to answer questions. 
• Unlike a traditional, “closed-book” exam that primarily tests memory and recall, an open-book assessment focuses on evaluating a student’s ability to understand, apply, and analyze information.
• There are different types of open-book assessments:

• Restricted: Students can only use specific, pre-approved materials (e.g., a single textbook or their own handwritten notes).
• Free: Students are allowed to use any relevant material they wish, which can be particularly useful for take-home exams.

Benefits of Open-Book Assessments

• Promotes Higher-Order thinking as focus shifts from memorisation to analysis, application, and problem-solving.
• Students face less exam anxiety since the emphasis is on understanding, not recall.
• Encourages Deeper Learning as requires organising notes and concepts, leading to better comprehension.
• Enhances resource management, information synthesis, and critical reasoning.
• Prepares students for professional settings where information access matters more than memorisation.
• Mirrors professional environments where recalling every detail is unnecessary; the focus is on locating, interpreting, and applying information.

Challenges in Implementation of Open-Book Exams

Limitations at student level

• Many Class IX students are accustomed to memorising facts rather than interpreting, analysing, or applying concepts. 
• Hence, students may find it challenging to connect knowledge to new contexts or solve real-world problems without additional guidance.

Limitations at Teacher level

• Teachers often lack training to frame or evaluate higher-order questions.
• Rote-learning culture persists due to syllabus pressure, standardised tests, and parental expectations.

Systemic and Cultural Factors

• Culture glorifies memorisation over understanding.
• Exams and standardised tests emphasise recall.
• Syllabus pressure forces teachers to rush and rely on repetitive testing.
• Parental expectations focus on outperforming peers in marks.
• Shortage of well-trained teachers capable of adopting modern, effective teaching methods.

Steps needed

• OBEs should complement, not replace, other forms of evaluation. Schools should use a balanced mix of assessment tools to measure different competencies.
• Teacher should adopt Bloom’s Taxonomy in Question Design as framing questions targeting higher-order skills: analysis, evaluation, creation, problem-solving, and application to encourage critical thinking and creativity alongside factual understanding.
• Promote classroom debates, discussions, and collaborative projects.
• Encourage students to reflect, consider multiple perspectives, and articulate ideas clearly.
• Focus on nurturing critical thinking, problem-solving, and application of knowledge rather than just introducing OBEs.
• Equip teachers to design higher-order questions and evaluate responses effectively.

Conclusion

Open-book exams have the potential to transform Indian education by moving it away from rote memorisation towards creativity, analysis, and application. But unless teachers are trained and students are guided in higher-order learning, OBEs may become a hollow exercise. Before opening the book, India must first open the minds of both teachers and learners.

Mains Practice Question

Q The CBSE’s proposal to introduce open-book exams at the secondary level is seen as a progressive reform. Critically examine the opportunities and challenges of open-book assessments in the Indian school system. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: Are our schools ready for open-book exams? – The Hindu