Category: INTERNATIONAL

Context:  A ceasefire agreement in Doha, Qatar, between the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and the Rwanda-backed M23 rebels

Both sides committed to a “permanent ceasefire” and pledged to engage in dialogue, including the voluntary return of refugees and displaced persons. This deal follows years of intense conflict, especially after a renewed M23 offensive seized key cities like Goma and Bukavu in early 2025.

Despite the breakthrough, the ceasefire is considered fragile due to several factors:

• Lack of International Support: Analysts warn that without strong international backing, the peace process could falter, as previous mediation attempts failed until Qatar’s surprise intervention.
• Ground Realities: Violence and mistrust persist, with the M23 threatening to resume fighting unless certain conditions are met, and some rebels have stated they will not retreat from their positions.
• Control and Administration: The M23 and its allies control vast territories in North and South Kivu provinces, raising concerns about security and the government’s ability to protect civilians.
• Deep-rooted Grievances: The conflict stems from overlapping ethnic, political, and economic issues, with external actors accused of supporting armed groups for their own interests. Key questions on disarmament and reintegration remain unresolved.
• Humanitarian Crisis: The long-running conflict has caused widespread displacement, leaving thousands in dire conditions.

Learning Corner:

Source: THE HINDU

Category: GEOGRAPHY

Context: India’s preparation against Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) events

A recent GLOF event in Nepal caused significant damage and led to the destruction of the Seti River’s bridge, emphasizing the rising risk of GLOF events in the Himalayas.

India, particularly in the Himalayan region, is working to mitigate these risks through measures like improving early warning systems, monitoring glacial lakes, and strengthening infrastructure to resist such disasters. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is focused on enhancing mitigation efforts using scientific tools, including satellite technology and remote sensing data to predict GLOF events.

Moreover, transboundary cooperation between India and Nepal is emphasized, given the shared watersheds and increasing risks from glacial lakes. Both countries have faced catastrophic GLOF events, and regional collaboration is critical for developing solutions to manage such risks effectively.

India’s efforts include research on glacial lakes and climate patterns, community involvement in preparedness programs, and using advanced technologies like SAR interferometry for better risk assessment. However, the effectiveness of these strategies will depend on the continuous monitoring and collaboration between neighboring nations.

Learning Corner:

Natural Disasters in the Himalayan Region

Source:  THE HINDU

Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Context : Scientists at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) have developed a groundbreaking microscope technique that enables real-time observation of molecular motion down to tens of angstroms

Instead of imaging individual molecules directly, this new method detects them indirectly by analyzing how they interact with light and leveraging Brownian motion—the random jittering caused by molecular collisions.

Key components of the method include:

• Use of a streak camera to track nanoscale dynamics with picosecond-level speed.
• Observation of an ensemble of molecules (hundreds of billions at once), with enough precision to infer individual molecular motion.
• A non-intrusive, label-free, and fast imaging process, making it suitable for applications in biomedical research, disease diagnostics, and nanomaterial fabrication.

The technique involves directing a laser through a sample, then capturing the scattered light using a system that includes a digital micromirror device (DMD) and the streak camera. The interaction patterns and fluctuations in light provide information about molecular size and movement.

This is now the world’s fastest single-molecule imaging technique, offering new possibilities in visualizing molecular behavior at unprecedented speeds and precision, without the need for fluorescent labels or direct visual observation.

Learning Corner:

Brownian Motion

Brownian motion refers to the random, irregular movement of microscopic particles suspended in a fluid (liquid or gas), resulting from collisions with the fast-moving molecules of the fluid.

Key Features:

• Discovered by: Robert Brown (1827), who observed pollen grains in water moving randomly under a microscope.
• Explained by: Albert Einstein (1905), who mathematically modeled it and linked it to molecular theory.
• Confirmed by: Jean Perrin, whose experimental work validated Einstein’s equations and helped establish the existence of atoms.

Scientific Significance:

• Evidence of molecular motion: Brownian motion provided strong proof for the kinetic theory of matter, supporting the atomic nature of substances.
• Statistical mechanics: It is a cornerstone concept in the development of modern statistical and quantum physics.
• Mathematical modeling: Brownian motion forms the basis of stochastic processes, including Wiener processes in probability theory.

Applications:

• Colloidal stability analysis
• Stock market modeling (in financial mathematics)
• Diffusion studies in chemistry and biology

Source :  THE HINDU

Category: HISTORY

Context Prime Minister Narendra Modi, during the Aadi Thiruvathirai festival at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, described the Chola dynasty as an “ancient roadmap” for realizing the vision of a developed India (Viksit Bharat).

• Military and Naval Strength: Highlighted the Cholas’ powerful navy and called for strengthening India’s maritime and defense capabilities.
• Cultural Unity: Praised the Cholas for fostering cultural integration, linking it to current initiatives like Kashi-Tamil Sangamam.
• Democratic Traditions: Cited the kudavolai system to emphasize India’s indigenous democratic roots.
• Water Management: Lauded the Cholas’ advanced irrigation systems as models for sustainable environmental practices.
• Art and Architecture: Recognized their enduring legacy in temple architecture, sculpture, and literature.
• Contemporary Actions: Announced statues of Raja Raja Chola and Rajendra Chola I, and highlighted efforts to recover cultural artifacts.

Learning Corner:

 Chola Dynasty 

The Chola Dynasty was one of the longest-ruling and most powerful South Indian empires, flourishing primarily between the 9th and 13th centuries CE.

Origin and Early Cholas

• The early Cholas are mentioned in Sangam literature (circa 300 BCE–300 CE), with rulers like Karikala Chola being notable.
• The imperial phase began with Vijayalaya Chola (850 CE), who captured Thanjavur from the Pallavas and laid the foundation of the later Chola Empire.

Important Rulers

1. Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE)
   • Expanded the empire across Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and parts of Sri Lanka.
   • Built the famous Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
   • Reorganized administration and revenue system.
2. Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE)
   • Took the empire to its greatest extent—conquering Sri Lanka, Andaman-Nicobar, Malay Peninsula, and even sending a naval expedition to the Srivijaya Empire (modern Indonesia).
   • Built a new capital at Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

Administration & Governance

• Highly centralized administration with efficient revenue collection.
• Use of village assemblies (sabhas) and the famous Kudavolai system for elections.
• Well-documented land grants and temple inscriptions.

Naval Power & Foreign Trade

• The Cholas built one of the strongest navies in ancient India.
• Maintained active trade with Southeast Asia, China, and the Arab world.

Art & Architecture

• Dravidian style temple architecture reached its zenith.
• Grand temples like Brihadeeswarar, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and Airavatesvara Temple reflect architectural brilliance.
• Patronized Tamil literature and bronze sculpture, especially the Nataraja icon.

Decline

• Began in the late 12th century due to internal strife and rising powers like the Pandyas and Hoysalas.
• The final blow came with Malik Kafur’s invasion in the early 14th century.

Legacy

• Played a major role in spreading Tamil culture and Shaivism in Southeast Asia.
• Left behind enduring architectural, artistic, and literary contributions.

Source: THE HINDU

Category: POLITY

Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi has emphasized the growing importance of India’s textile sector, positioning it as a key pillar of economic growth, cultural identity, and self-reliance.

Key Highlights:

• Economic Growth: The sector’s market value has grown from under ₹7 lakh crore in 2014 to over ₹12 lakh crore in 2024, with a 25% rise in yarn, fabric, and apparel production.
• Employment: As the second-largest employer after agriculture, the textile industry empowers rural artisans, women, and youth, and supports over 3,000 start-ups.
• Cultural Link: Textiles are seen as an expression of India’s rich heritage. The “farm to fibre to foreign” model reflects a blend of tradition and technology.
• Policy Support: Key initiatives include the National Technical Textiles Mission, PLI scheme, MITRA parks, and the Samarth skill development scheme. MSMEs contribute 80% to the sector.
• Export Goals: The government aims to boost textile exports from ₹3 lakh crore to ₹9 lakh crore by 2030, with recent export growth of 7%.
• Innovation & Quality: Emphasis on R&D, GI tagging, and quality control to enhance global competitiveness.
• Sustainability: The sector is addressing challenges like textile waste through resource-efficient practices.
• Vision 2047: Modi envisions the textile sector as central to building a self-reliant, developed India by 2047, benefiting farmers, artisans, and entrepreneurs alike.

Learning Corner:

Government Schemes for the Textile Sector

1. 1. Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for Textiles (2021)

• Aims to boost production of man-made fibres (MMF) and technical textiles.

1. • Provides financial incentives over 5 years for incremental production.
   • Focuses on high-value products to increase global competitiveness.
2. PM MITRA (Mega Integrated Textile Region and Apparel) Parks
   • Launched to develop world-class industrial infrastructure for textiles.
   • 7 PM MITRA Parks to be set up with plug-and-play facilities and value chain integration.
   • Inspired by the 5F vision: Farm to Fibre to Factory to Fashion to Foreign.
3. SAMARTH (Scheme for Capacity Building in Textile Sector)
   • Focuses on skill development in the textile value chain.
   • Targets unemployed youth, especially from rural and marginalised sections.
   • Includes placement-linked skilling programs.
4. National Technical Textiles Mission (2020–2024)
   • Aims to position India as a global leader in technical textiles.
   • Promotes research, innovation, and indigenous development of high-performance textiles used in agriculture, defence, healthcare, etc.
5. Integrated Wool Development Programme (IWDP)
   • Supports the wool sector, particularly in Himalayan and tribal regions.
   • Focuses on improving sheep breeding, shearing, wool processing, and marketing.
6. Silk Samagra 2.0
   • A comprehensive scheme to boost silk production.
   • Supports research, seed production, rearing infrastructure, and marketing.
7. Amended Technology Upgradation Fund Scheme (ATUFS)
   • Provides capital subsidies for technology upgradation in textiles.
   • Encourages modernization of machinery to improve productivity and quality.
8. PowerTex India
   • Focuses on power loom sector modernization.
   • Offers subsidies for loom upgrades, common facilities, and solar power use.
9. Handloom & Handicrafts Schemes
   • Includes National Handloom Development Programme (NHDP) and Comprehensive Handicrafts Cluster Development Scheme (CHCDS).
   • Aims at financial assistance, marketing support, and infrastructure development for artisans.

Source: THE HINDU

Introduction (Context)

The World Bank, in collaboration with the Union Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), released a report titled “Towards Resilient and Prosperous Cities in India”.

It estimates that Indian cities will need $2.4 trillion by 2050 to build climate-resilient infrastructure and urban services.

Key highlights of the Report

• The report stated that India’s urban population is expected to almost double by 2050 to 951 million and more than 144 million new homes will be needed by 2070.
• The rapid growth of built-up areas will increase the temperature. Intense heat waves and urban heat island effects are already causing temperatures in city centres to rise by over 3-4 degrees over surrounding areas. 
• It is also reducing cities’ capacity to absorb storm water, making them more vulnerable to floods.
• The report said that climate change and urbanization patterns are the main drivers of stormwater-related or pluvial flooding risks, with a forecasted increase in risk of 3.6 to 7 times by 2070.  
• Annual estimated losses just from pluvial or storm water related flooding are likely to increase from $4 billion in 2023 to up to $14-30 billion by 2070, exposing up to 46.4 million people.
• Heat-related deaths can double to over 3 lakh each year by 2050 due to global warming and the urban heat island phenomenon. 
• In addition, flash floods are recurring events in urban spaces. In India, flash floods are often associated with cloudbursts – sudden, intense rainfall in a short period of time. Himalayan states further face the challenge of overflowing glacial lakes, formed due to the melting of glaciers, and their numbers have been increasing in the last few years.

Terminologies

• Urban Heat Island: An urban heat island is a local and temporary phenomenon experienced when certain pockets within a city experience a higher heat load than surrounding or neighbouring areas on the same day. The variations are mainly due to heat remaining trapped within locations that often resemble concrete jungles. The temperature variation can range between 3 to 5 degrees Celsius.
• Heat Wave:  A period of abnormally high temperatures, often accompanied by high humidity, lasting for several days or weeks. In India, IMD defines it as a temperature of 40°C or more in plains and 30°C or more in hilly regions for at least 2 consecutive days.
• Stormwater: Water that originates from rainfall or melted snow and flows over surfaces such as roads, rooftops, and open land, often entering drainage systems.
• Pluvial Flood: A type of flooding caused by intense rainfall overwhelming urban drainage systems or ground infiltration capacity, leading to surface water accumulation in streets and low-lying areas, irrespective of river overflow.
• Flash Flood: A sudden and intense flood occurring within 3 to 6 hours of heavy rainfall or events like cloudbursts or dam breaks. It is highly localized, often occurs in urban areas or hilly terrain, and causes rapid water accumulation and destruction.

Practices adopted in cities to make resilience against climate change 

• Ahmedabad has developed a Heat Action Plan model which aims to strengthen early warning systems, improve healthcare readiness, increase green cover and shift work schedules for outdoor laborers.
• Kolkata has adopted a city-level flood forecasting and warning system.
• Indore has invested in a modern solid waste management system, improving cleanliness and supporting green jobs.
• Chennai has adopted a climate action plan based on thorough risk assessment and targeting both adaptation and low-carbon growth.

Recommendations

The report has studied 24 Indian cities, with a special focus on Chennai, Indore, New Delhi, Lucknow, Surat and Thiruvananthapuram, and finds that timely adaptation can avert billions of dollars of annual losses from future weather-related shocks. 

For example, annual pluvial flood-related losses can be averted and can amount to $5 billion by 2030, and $30 billion by 2070. Investments in adaptation will also save over 130,000 lives from extreme heat impacts by 2050.

To urgently help Indian cities and support vulnerable populations, this report outlines key recommendations:

• Implement programs to address extreme urban heat and flooding, including better regulation of stormwater, green spaces, installation of cool roofs, and effective early warning systems.
• Invest in resilient infrastructure and municipal services, energy efficient and resilient housing, modernize solid waste management, and make urban transport flood resilient.
• Improve access to urban finance through better private sector engagement.

The report estimates that investments of over $2.4 trillion will be needed by 2050 to meet the need for new, resilient, and low-carbon infrastructure and services in cities. The private sector’s role will be critical in meeting these investments.

Conclusion

The World Bank report has rightly emphasized that without robust urban governance, financial planning, and local autonomy, India’s urban transition could become a disaster-in-waiting.

For sustainable development and inclusive growth, India must treat cities not just as growth engines, but as resilient ecosystems needing urgent investments in infrastructure, institutions, and innovation.

Mains Practice Question

Q “India’s urban transition is occurring alongside intensifying climate risks. In this context, examine the role of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in making Indian cities resilient and prosperous. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: https://indianexpress.com/article/upsc-current-affairs/upsc-essentials/knowledge-nugget-world-bank-report-urban-bodies-cities-ulbs-upsc-10147022/

Introduction (Context)

China has officially commenced construction of a massive hydroelectric dam on the Yarlung Zangbo (Brahmaputra) river near the Arunachal Pradesh border. 

The project ($167.8 billion hydropower project), expected to be the world’s largest, raises significant hydrological, ecological, and strategic concerns for India and Bangladesh.

Location of the Project

• The dam on the Yarlung Zangbo (or Tsangpo), as the Brahmaputra is known in Tibet, is being built at the “Great Bend”, where the river makes a U-turn in Medog county before entering India at Gelling in Arunachal Pradesh. The river is called Siang in Arunachal Pradesh.
• The dam will have a generation capacity of 60,000 MW, three times that of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze, which is currently the world’s biggest hydropower station.

Key concerns for India

Arunachal Pradesh Chief Minister Pema Khandu has once described China’s Brahmaputra mega dam as a “water bomb” and “existential threat”.

The Brahmaputra is the lifeline of Assam, fundamental to its economy, and central to its history, culture, and ecology. Any significant disruption in the flow of the river in the state will have far-reaching consequences.

Meaning of Water Bomb

• The term “water bomb” has been used for weaponised water release.
• If China were to suddenly release a large volume of stored water whether by accident, natural disaster, or deliberately it could trigger catastrophic flash floods in downstream regions like Siang valley in Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Assam.
• Tibet is a seismically active zone where the Indian tectonic plate collides with the Eurasian plate, and the region where the dam is coming up is considered to be earthquake-prone and ecologically extremely fragile.

Meaning of “existential threat”

• Indigenous communities in the Siang belt depend heavily on the river for fishing, agriculture, and daily life. Any major disruption like flooding or long-term depletion would threaten their survival and cultural identity.
• Sudden changes in water flow can harm the rich biodiversity and fragile ecosystem of the Eastern Himalayas. Riverine flora and fauna could face extinction or habitat loss.
• In the long run Siang and Brahmaputra rivers could dry up considerably.

China’s Stand

• The Chinese Foreign Ministry claims the project is within its sovereign rights.
• Assures cooperation via data sharing, flood control, and disaster reduction.

India’s Response

• India issued no official reaction after the July 19 ceremony but has said it is monitoring Chinese infrastructure interventions on the river.
• The Chinese side has been urged to ensure that the interests of downstream states of the Brahmaputra are not harmed by activities in upstream areas.
• Increased Diplomatic Engagement through:
  • Foreign Secretary-led dialogue in March discussed cross-border cooperation.
  • Kailash Mansarovar Yatra resumed in June 2025.
  • Tourist visas to Chinese citizens resumed in July 2025.

Mitigation measures

• India should make scientific calculations about the Chinese dam project, and build its own capability and capacity to preempt any deliberate actions in the future.
• India could plan storage on rivers of the Brahmaputra system to absorb potential variations in flows (periods of flooding and reduced flows). 

• • The Upper Siang project in Arunachal Pradesh, with its 300-metre-high dam, is seen as important not just for its formidable hydropower potential, but also as a strategic imperative in view of the Chinese projects in Tibet. 
  • The dam’s storage can serve as a buffer against variations in the flow of the river.
  • However, progress on the project has been slowed by local resistance against the potential adverse environmental impact of the dam.

• There is a need to build more inland channels to carry the flow of excess water in the future. The National Water Development Authority has proposed two links to connect the Brahmaputra and its tributaries to the Ganga basin with the aim of transferring surplus water to water-scarce regions.
• There is the need to utilise diplomatic channels to seek detailed hydrological and project-related data from China in order to assess downstream impacts on a continuous basis.
• India should also have conversations with other low riparian neighbours — Bhutan, Bangladesh and even Myanmar — on developing a coordinated protocol for advance warning and disaster preparedness.

Mains Practice Question

Q China’s construction of a mega dam on the Brahmaputra river poses serious ecological and geopolitical challenges for India. Examine the implications for India’s water security and suggest a multi-pronged response strategy.(250 words, 15 marks)

Source: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/chinas-mega-dam-on-brahmaputra-concerns-in-india-10151594/