Category: GEOGRAPHY

Context:  Cloudburst in Uttarkhand.

The Uttarkashi flash flood site in Dharasu-Gangotri stretch lies in the Bhagirathi Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ), a protected area established in 2012 to safeguard the Ganga river’s ecology. Experts believe unregulated construction, especially on river floodplains, worsened the disaster’s impact. Over 600 people are reported missing.

Activists and environmental groups had raised alarms over bypass road constructions, widening of roads without EIAs, and cutting of Deodar trees. The village of Dharali, the flood’s epicentre, has a narrow gorge of igneous rock, making it naturally prone to flash floods and landslides.

Learning Corner:

Cloudburst 

“A cloudburst is an extreme weather event in which very heavy rainfall occurs over a localized area in a very short duration, typically at a rate of 100 mm per hour or more.”

Key Features as per NDMA:

• High Intensity: ≥ 100 mm of rainfall in an hour.
• Localized Area: Usually within a few square kilometers.
• Short Duration: Often less than an hour.
• Common in Mountains: Especially in the Himalayas due to orographic lifting.
• Potential Impacts: Flash floods, landslides, debris flows, and severe damage to life and infrastructure.

Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: INTERNATIONAL

Category: INTERNATIONAL

Context: Rajula Srivastava, a mathematician originally from India, has won the Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize for her groundbreaking work in harmonic analysis and analytic number theory

Research Focus:

• Works on harmonic analysis: breaking down complex functions into simpler frequencies (like Fourier analysis).
• Explores how these patterns extend into higher dimensions and number theory, including lattice points and wave geometry.
• Uses geometry, patterns, and logic to tackle fundamental math problems with elegant simplicity.

Learning Corner:

Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize:

The Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize is an international mathematics award presented annually as part of the Breakthrough Prizes. It honors early-career women mathematicians who have completed their PhDs within the past two years and have made significant contributions to the field of mathematics.

Key Features:

• Named after Maryam Mirzakhani, the first and only woman to win the Fields Medal.
• Purpose: To recognize and encourage young women pursuing careers in mathematics.
• Eligibility: Female mathematicians within two years of receiving their PhD.
• Awarded for: Outstanding contributions in any area of mathematics.

It aims to promote gender equity in mathematical sciences and highlight the achievements of women in a traditionally male-dominated field.

Source: THE HINDU

Category: HISTORY

Context: The new NCERT Class 8 Social Science textbook has omitted references to Tipu Sultan, Haidar Ali, and the Anglo-Mysore wars of the 1700s

In response to a parliamentary question, the Union Government clarified that states have the flexibility to include or expand regional content, including historical personalities and events, in their textbooks.

Learning Corner:

Anglo-Mysore Wars:

The Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of four military conflicts fought in the late 18th century between the Kingdom of Mysore (under Haider Ali and later Tipu Sultan) and the British East India Company, often involving the Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad.

Key Details:

1. First War (1767–1769):
   • Fought between Haider Ali and the British.
   • Ended with the Treaty of Madras (1769), restoring conquered territories.
2. Second War (1780–1784):
   • Tipu Sultan emerged as a key leader.
   • Ended with the Treaty of Mangalore, restoring status quo ante.
3. Third War (1790–1792):
   • British allied with Marathas and Nizam.
   • Ended with the Treaty of Srirangapatam, Tipu ceded half his territory.
4. Fourth War (1799):
   • Tipu Sultan was killed in the Battle of Srirangapatam.
   • Mysore came under British control with a subsidiary alliance.

These wars marked the decline of Mysore as a powerful kingdom and expanded British dominance in South India.

Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: ENVIRONMENT

Context Union Minister Nitin Gadkari has accused the petrol lobby of fueling a fear campaign against E20 ethanol-blended fuel,

Union Minister Nitin Gadkari has accused the petrol lobby of fueling a fear campaign against E20 ethanol-blended fuel, amid public backlash over mileage drops and engine concerns. While surveys show significant user opposition, the government maintains that issues are minor, scientifically overstated, and driven by vested interests resisting biofuel adoption.

Learning corner:

E20 Fuel 

E20 is a blend of 20% ethanol and 80% petrol. It is part of India’s strategy to reduce oil imports, cut carbon emissions, and support farmers by promoting ethanol production. The fuel is suitable for E20-compliant vehicles, with only minor efficiency drops. Public concerns exist over mileage and engine wear.

India’s Biofuel and Ethanol Blending Strategy:

The National Policy on Biofuels, 2018, aims to promote biofuels for energy security, environmental sustainability, and rural development. It encourages the use of ethanol, biodiesel, and advanced biofuels from various feedstocks like sugarcane, grains, and agricultural waste.

Key Features:

• Ethanol Blending Target: 20% in petrol by 2025-26
• Biodiesel Blending Target: 5% in diesel by 2030
• Allows production of ethanol from damaged food grains, starchy crops, and industrial waste
• Promotes 1G, 2G, and advanced biofuels
• Offers financial incentives, viability gap funding, and tax benefits

Objectives:

• Reduce import dependency on crude oil
• Cut greenhouse gas emissions
• Boost farmers’ income and support rural employment

The policy creates a roadmap for cleaner fuels but requires strong implementation, feedstock availability, and infrastructure development.

Note on 1G, 2G, and Advanced Biofuels:

1G (First-Generation) Biofuels:

• Produced from food crops like sugarcane, maize, and wheat.
• Examples: Ethanol from sugarcane juice, biodiesel from vegetable oils.
• Concern: May compete with food production and affect food security.

2G (Second-Generation) Biofuels:

• Made from non-food biomass like agricultural residues (rice straw, corn cobs), forest waste, and lignocellulosic materials.
• Examples: Cellulosic ethanol
• Advantage: Does not impact food supply; better waste utilization.

Advanced Biofuels (3G & beyond):

• Derived from algae, industrial waste gases, or genetically engineered organisms.
• Examples: Algae-based biodiesel, bio-CNG, biohydrogen
• Potential: High yield, low land requirement, and carbon-neutral or negative.

These categories represent a shift toward more sustainable and non-food-based fuel sources in India’s biofuel roadmap.

Source:  THE HINDU

Category: ENVIRONMENT

Context : With the upcoming Indian carbon market in 2026, biochar — a carbon-rich product made from agricultural and municipal waste — is gaining importance

When used effectively, biochar can sequester carbon for 100–1,000 years, improve soil fertility, and serve as a long-term carbon sink.

Biochar’s Potential in India:

• India produces 600+ million metric tonnes of agricultural waste and 60+ million tonnes of municipal solid waste annually.
• Using just 30–50% of surplus waste could yield 15–26 million tonnes of biochar, removing up to 0.91 gigatonnes of CO₂ equivalent annually.
• Byproducts like syngas and bio-oil can be used for electricity and fuel.
• Biochar can treat wastewater, reduce pollution, and be used in construction and agriculture.

Challenges to Large-Scale Adoption:

• Limited resources, technological barriers, market uncertainties, and weak policy support.
• Lack of awareness, monitoring, and verification frameworks.
• Underrepresentation in carbon credit systems.

Learning Corner:

Biochar:

Biochar is a carbon-rich material produced by the pyrolysis (heating in low oxygen) of organic waste like crop residues, wood chips, and municipal waste. It is used primarily as a soil amendment and has significant climate mitigation potential.

Key Benefits:

• Sequesters carbon for hundreds to thousands of years, acting as a long-term carbon sink.
• Improves soil fertility, water retention, and microbial activity.
• Reduces methane and nitrous oxide emissions from soils.
• Can be used in wastewater treatment, construction materials, and energy generation (via byproducts like syngas and bio-oil).

Challenges:

• High initial cost of production and limited awareness.
• Lack of standardized regulations and certification in carbon markets.

Biochar plays a key role in sustainable agriculture, waste management, and climate change mitigation, especially in countries like India with large biomass availability.

Source:  THE HINDU

Introduction (Context)

The recent cloudburst in Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand, causing devastating flash floods and landslides in the village of Dharali and surrounding areas, is a stark reminder of the growing impact of climate-induced extreme weather events in the Himalayan region. As cloudbursts become more frequent and intense, India must rethink its infrastructure, disaster response, and climate adaptation strategies.

What is cloudburst?

According to the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), a cloudburst is defined as rainfall exceeding 20 mm in one hour within a radius of 20–30 square kilometres. It usually occurs in hilly or mountainous regions.

The rainfall comes so quickly and with such force that the ground, already steep and often saturated, cannot absorb it. Streams turn into rivers.

Rivers turn into avalanches of water, mud, and boulders. The result is instant: landslides, flooding, and destruction. 

How cloudburst occurs?

The formation of a cloudburst involves a combination of meteorological and geographical factors:

• During the monsoon, the ground—especially in the plains and foothills—heats up quickly. This causes the warm, moisture-laden air to rise rapidly into the atmosphere. As the air ascends, it cools and the moisture begins to condense into clouds.
• In hilly terrains such as the Himalayas or the Western Ghats, rising air is further forced upwards when it encounters steep mountain slopes. 
• This phenomenon is known as orographic lifting, and it accelerates the cooling and condensation process, forming dense clouds saturated with moisture.
• Once the clouds become too heavy with condensed water droplets, and the upward-moving air currents (called updrafts) can no longer support them, the water is released suddenly. 
• This results in intense rainfall within minutes, which distinguishes cloudbursts from normal rain.

Cloudbursts are hyperlocal and short-lived, making them difficult to forecast. Unlike cyclones or widespread low-pressure systems that develop over days, cloudbursts often form and occur within hours. 

While Doppler radars and satellites can sometimes detect the necessary atmospheric conditions shortly before a cloudburst, accurate prediction and timely warnings remain a challenge.

Heavy rains caused mountainsides to collapse and floodwaters to inundate homes, it became clear that traditional infrastructure and disaster preparedness measures are woefully inadequate in the face of a rapidly changing climate.

Reasons for frequent climate disasters in Himalayas

• The Hindu Kush Himalayas, known as the “Water Tower of Asia”, are highly sensitive to climate fluctuations.
• Rising temperatures cause glaciers to melt and increase the amount of atmospheric moisture. 
• Warmer air holds more water vapour approximately 7 per cent more for every degree Celsius of warming. This extra moisture often results in intense, localised rainfall events, like cloudbursts, which are sudden, intense downpours over small areas. 
• Recent studies have shown that cloudburst incidents in the Hindu Kush Himalayas have increased in frequency and intensity over the past few decades. 
• The changing climate has destabilised weather patterns, making monsoon rains more erratic. 
• The terrain also amplifies these effects, as steep slopes and loose soil make landslides more likely, while narrow valleys funnel floodwaters into villages, causing sudden and severe damage.

Issues in handling the crisis

1.Outdated Infrastructure

• India still depends on traditional systems like dams, drains, and embankments.
• These were built for past weather patterns and cannot handle today’s extreme climate events.

2.Lack of Real-Time Monitoring

• There are very few Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) in high-risk areas like the Himalayas.
• AWS are important for collecting real-time data on rainfall, temperature, and air pressure.

Steps needed

1. Strengthen Early Warning System: 

• Use AWS and advanced weather models to predict extreme weather in advance. 
• Forecasts can help issue timely alerts, evacuate people, and prepare relief operations.
• Example: Nepal uses early warning systems effectively in mountain areas to reduce risks.

2. Restore natural vegetation

• India must embrace ecological solutions such as restoring wetlands, mangroves, and natural sponge zones that absorb floodwaters and reduce runoff. 
• These nature-based solutions are cost-effective, sustainable, and adaptable to changing climate conditions.

3.Promote land use planning

• In hilly areas, forests and natural vegetation act like protective walls — they hold the soil together and help prevent landslides.
• Land planning in these regions should focus on keeping these natural barriers intact, not clearing them for roads or buildings.

4.Reforestation

• Areas that are already facing soil erosion or have lost greenery need urgent attention.
• Reforestation (replanting in deforested areas) and afforestation (planting in new areas) should be done on a large scale.

5.Empower Local Communities

• Train locals in disaster preparedness, especially in hill and rural areas.
• Use traditional knowledge of weather patterns to improve warning systems.

6.Mainstreaming climate resilience into urban and rural planning

• This involves mainstreaming climate resilience into urban and rural planning, incentivising community participation, and ensuring that marginalised groups near drainage channels and other vulnerable zones receive special attention during rehabilitation efforts.

Conclusion

India must recognise that climate change is a systemic challenge requiring coordinated action at all local, national, and international levels. 

Investing in research, fostering innovation in climate resilience technologies, and partnering with regional neighbours can bolster adaptive capacity across the Himalayas and beyond.

Mains Practice Question

Q The increasing frequency of cloudbursts in the Himalayas highlights the urgency for a climate-resilient disaster management strategy in India. Discuss with suitable suggestions. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: Uttarkashi Cloudburst: What should India do to avoid further climate catastrophe

Introduction (Context)

China is expanding its overseas policing presence through formal agreements and informal networks across Europe and beyond. 

Under the guise of protecting Chinese citizens and tourists abroad, China’s Ministry of Public Security (MPS) has deployed personnel for joint patrols and established alleged “service centres,” raising concerns over surveillance, repression of dissidents, and breach of host country sovereignty.

Presence of China’s Joint Patrols

• In July 2024, China sent an eight-member police team to Croatia for joint patrols under a 2017 China-Croatia Agreement on Police Cooperation.
• The patrols are formed to address the “safety-related concerns” of not just Chinese tourists, but also Chinese citizens and overseas Chinese people in Croatia.
• They operated in Croatian cities such as Zagreb, Dubrovnik, Zadar etc.
• Under the operation ‘Sky Net’, joint police patrolling initiatives have been launched with Serbia, Italy and Hungary. 
• Three month-long patrols have already been conducted in Serbia in 2019, 2023, and 2024. 
• In Hungary, the Qingtian County Public Security Bureau has gone as far as creating ‘police service centres’ in the country. 

Concerns

• Surveillance and harassment of political dissidents, ethnic minorities (e.g., Uyghurs, Tibetans), and human rights activists living abroad.
• Operation of “informal police stations” or “service centres” that conduct law enforcement activities outside the framework of formal diplomatic protocols or international law.

Example: United States (2023):

• The FBI arrested two individuals in Manhattan’s Chinatown, accused of operating an illegal Chinese “police station.”
• They were charged with acting as unregistered agents of the Chinese government and obstructing justice.
• This confirmed long-held concerns over Chinese espionage, digital surveillance, and suppression of diaspora voices.

Whereas on the other hand, Countries like Serbia, Croatia, and Mongolia have not launched public investigations into similar operations.

Their foreign policy is more aligned with economic and strategic cooperation with China, particularly under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

As a result, surveillance and transnational repression concerns are often overlooked unless they pose a direct threat to national security.

Conclusion

The phenomenon of informal overseas policing and surveillance highlights the need for strict adherence to international norms and robust legal frameworks to protect the rights and freedoms of diaspora communities.

India’s diaspora and overseas student community may be targets for similar surveillance if such centres appear in countries with significant Indian-Chinese populations.

India must monitor cyber operations, consular activities, and bilateral security partnerships to meet the threat.

Mains Practice Question

Q China’s growing overseas policing network has raised concerns over state sovereignty and transnational repression. Discuss the implications of such practices on international norms and India’s security interests. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: How is China extending its policing network overseas? | Explained – The Hindu