TOPIC:  Water management in India: Source to Sea approach

GS Paper II – Governance

India is grappling with a water crisis marked by pollution, scarcity, overexploitation, and fragmented governance. In light of growing scientific consensus and global commitments—such as the UN’s International Year of Glacier Preservation 2025—a Source-to-Sea (S2S) approach to water governance is emerging as a critical alternative to the current fragmented systems.

• World Water Day 2025, observed annually on March 22, focused on the theme ‘Glacier Preservation’, emphasizing the urgent need to protect the earth’s cryosphere.
• The United Nations designated 2025 as the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation, and March 21 was marked for the first time as the World Day for Glaciers. This also marked the launch of the Decade of Action on Cryospheric Science (2025–2034) to study and protect the frozen parts of the planet.
• The UN World Water Development Report 2025 highlighted ‘Mountains and Glaciers – Water Towers’ as its central theme, underlining the significance of alpine glacier systems in sustaining mountain ecosystems and supplying water to downstream populations.
• The year 2025 also marks the midpoint of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030). This initiative promotes the agenda ‘Science we need for the ocean we want’, calling attention to pressing marine challenges such as coastal pollution, rising sea temperatures, coastal hazards, sea level rise, and the decline in marine biodiversity.

• The Source-to-Sea (S2S) approach aims to bridge upstream and downstream water governance, recognizing that mountainous cryosphere, freshwater systems, coastal zones, and oceans are ecologically interconnected. 
• It seeks integrated solutions across land, freshwater, estuarine, and marine systems.
• Recognizes hydrological and ecological interdependence of river basins and marine systems.
• Addresses impacts of land-based activities (e.g., agriculture, waste discharge) on coastal and ocean health.
• Promotes stakeholder coordination across geographies and sectors.

• Water acts as a link between upstream and downstream ecosystems, forming a continuous hydrological connection from source to sea.
• Human activities upstream—such as damming, diversion for agriculture, extraction from water bodies and aquifers, and pollution—significantly alter the natural freshwater flow, impacting downstream areas and coastal/marine ecosystems.
• Although the hydrological cycle is a natural process, it is disrupted at the sub-system level due to anthropogenic interventions.
• These disruptions contribute to reduced freshwater inflows to the coasts and oceans, leading to marine degradation, including pollution, eutrophication, and biodiversity loss.
• Current water management systems often treat land, freshwater, and marine domains in isolation, ignoring their interconnectedness, which has emerged as a critical global concern.
• To address this, the Source-to-Sea (S2S) approach was introduced under the Manila Declaration in January 2012.

• The S2S approach was formalized under the Manila Declaration (2012), which emphasized protecting the marine environment from land-based activities. It called for integrated land-to-sea solutions under the framework of ‘ridge-to-reef’ management.
• In 2014, the Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI) launched the Action Platform for Source-to-Sea Management to enable cooperation among freshwater and marine experts. Since January 2025, this platform has been hosted by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
• The approach is built on two key scientific insights: 

• First, it opposes the conventional fragmentation of water governance into isolated units like rivers, lakes, and oceans. 
• Second, it supports applying a socio-ecological system framework through tools like causal chain analysis and transboundary diagnostics.

• The United Nations University, under the Global Environmental Facility’s International Water Science project, also recommended using science-driven diagnostics to improve international water project outcomes.

• India’s water governance suffers from spatial disparities in availability, unequal access, overexploitation of resources, and increasing pollution.
• According to NITI Aayog’s 2018 report, nearly 600 million Indians face high water stress, which could lead to a 6% loss in GDP.
• The World Resources Institute’s Aqueduct Atlas places India among countries facing extreme water stress, which threatens food and economic security.
• In 2022, the Central Pollution Control Board identified 311 polluted river stretches in 30 States and Union Territories, reflecting severe water quality issues.
• India produces about 1.7 lakh tonnes of solid waste daily, but only 53% is treated. A significant portion of the untreated waste contaminates surface water and groundwater bodies.
• On average, 60.5% of India’s extractable groundwater is used, with several States like Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan already crossing 100% extraction levels. Groundwater contributes over 60% to irrigation and 85% to drinking water, yet its quality is declining, raising alarms about long-term water security.
• The fragmented and sectoral approach to water governance, involving different authorities and regulations for rivers, lakes, aquifers, and coastal zones, undermines cohesive policymaking.
• Jurisdictional overlaps further complicate matters. Governance occurs at multiple levels village, State, national, and global and coordinating actions across these tiers remains a major challenge.

• • India’s first national water policy was introduced in 1987, with successive versions incorporating new concerns like sustainability and climate resilience.
• In 2015, a committee was formed to restructure the Central Water Commission and Central Ground Water Board into a National Water Commission.

• In 2019, the Ministry of Jal Shakti formed a committee to draft a new national water policy with expert input. Several States have also formulated their own policies.

However, the Source-to-Sea approach has not yet found space in mainstream water policy planning.

Two case studies currently under exploration in India show early signs of S2S uptake. 

• One focuses on nutrient management in Delhi’s waterbodies. 
• The second examines human settlements and their link to the S2S landscape in the Indo-Gangetic basin under the S2S Futures Programme.

• Water management in India remains heavily siloed. Surface water, groundwater, and marine systems are managed by different departments, leading to duplication and policy mismatch.
• There is a significant disconnect between scientific research and policy implementation, especially in translating global best practices to local action.
• Stakeholder coordination is weak across Ministries, State departments, and local bodies. Civil society and scientific communities are often not involved in planning.
• Poor enforcement of pollution norms and ineffective waste treatment mechanisms add to the degradation of water bodies.
• The lack of a common institutional platform for upstream and downstream coordination undermines long-term sustainability goals.

• SDG 6.5: Implement Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) at all levels.
• SDG 14.1: Prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution from land-based activities by 2025.
• SDG 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts—especially via cryosphere protection.
• SDG 15: Sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation.

• India must integrate the Source-to-Sea approach into its national water policy to ensure holistic and inclusive water governance.
• There should be institutional mechanisms to link freshwater goals under SDG.
• Multi-stakeholder platforms involving government agencies, scientists, local communities, and private actors must be created to plan and implement basin-wide actions.
• Project planning should include science-based tools like trans-boundary diagnostics and causal chain analysis to assess and mitigate upstream-downstream impacts.
• Actions across governance levels—local to national—must be synchronized under a nested governance framework, especially for inter-State river basins.
• Promoting a circular water economy through wastewater reuse, pollution control, and community-based conservation will support both water security and ecological integrity.

India’s current water governance model, fragmented and jurisdictionally scattered, is ill-equipped to deal with the complex realities of the 21st-century water crisis. The Source-to-Sea (S2S) approach offers a timely and transformative pathway, recognizing the ecological unity from glaciers to oceans. By aligning scientific research, policy frameworks, and multi-tiered governance systems, India can ensure sustainable and resilient water systems that serve both people and nature.

TOPIC:  Food Safety

World Food Safety Day 2025, observed on June 7, highlights the theme “Food Safety: Science in Action”. It serves as an opportunity to reflect on India’s shift from basic anti-adulteration laws to a modern, science-based food safety framework led by the FSSAI. However, critical gaps remain in risk assessment, communication, and regulatory coherence.

• India’s food safety journey began with the Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) Act, 1954, focusing on a binary adulterated/non-adulterated view.
• A major shift occurred with the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, establishing the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), adopting a risk-based, scientific approach aligned with Codex Alimentarius standards.
• By 2020, India’s standards were comparable to many advanced nations
• India’s food safety framework has evolved into a science-based system addressing contaminants, additives, pesticide residues, and veterinary drugs through risk analysis
• It is supported by Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs), Acceptable Daily Intakes (ADI), and food additive safety norms.

• Public Health Protection: Ensures that food is free from harmful contaminants, reducing the risk of food borne illnesses, long-term health issues like cancer, and malnutrition.
• Consumer Trust & Awareness: Builds public confidence in the food system and empowers citizens to make informed and healthy dietary choices.
• Economic Impact: Prevents productivity loss due to illness, reduces healthcare costs, and supports sectors like hospitality, exports, and retail.
• Global Trade Compliance: Aligns India’s food standards with international norms (e.g., Codex), enabling export growth and preventing rejection of Indian food products abroad.
• Sustainable Development & Nutrition: Promotes safe, fortified, and nutritious food, contributing to national goals like “Zero Hunger” and improving child and maternal health indicators.

Lack of India-Specific Data:

• MRLs and ADIs based on international datasets may not reflect Indian dietary diversity, agricultural patterns, or climatic conditions.
• Absence of a Total Diet Study (TDS) restricts understanding of cumulative exposure from food.

Poor Risk Communication:

• Concepts like MRLs (e.g., 0.01 mg/kg to 0.1 mg/kg) and ADIs are poorly understood by the public.
• Technical changes are often misinterpreted as compromises on safety.

Legacy Regulatory Problems, Example of MSG

• Despite global acceptance of Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) as safe (as early as 1971 by JECFA), India mandates warning labels on foods containing MSG.
• Glutamates naturally occur in many common Indian foods like tomatoes and garlic, causing consumer misinformation and fear.

Institutional Weaknesses:

• Inadequate trained manpower in toxicology, food science, and risk analysis.
• Fragmented implementation across state food safety departments.

• MRLs (Maximum Residue Limits): The highest level of a pesticide residue legally allowed in food, based on safety assessments to ensure no harm to human health.
• ADIs (Acceptable Daily Intakes): The maximum amount of a substance (like a food additive or pesticide) that can be consumed daily over a lifetime without health risk.
• Total Diet Study (TDS): A scientific assessment that estimates a population’s exposure to various contaminants through all foods commonly consumed in a typical diet.
• Codex Alimentarius Standards: International food safety and quality standards developed by the FAO and WHO to protect consumer health and facilitate fair trade.

Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006

• Replaced multiple outdated food laws (like the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954) to create a single, comprehensive legislation for food safety in India.
• Created the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) as the apex body to regulate and monitor food safety and standards nationwide.
• Roles and Powers of FSSAI:

• Frame regulations and guidelines for food safety
• Grant licenses and registration to food businesses
• Conduct surveillance, audits, and inspections
• Promote food safety awareness and research

• Mandated the use of modern, science-based risk analysis—including setting standards for food additives, contaminants, pesticide residues, and labelling.
• Shifted from a reactive, punishment-based model to a preventive, risk-based approach focused on food safety throughout the supply chain.
• Empowered consumers by mandating labelling, promoting transparency, and ensuring the right to safe, wholesome, and properly labelled food.

• Strengthen scientific foundations by conducting India-specific toxicological studies and implementing a nationwide Total Diet Study (TDS).
• Improve communication strategies to translate complex scientific metrics into consumer-friendly language and remove misleading or outdated labels such as those on MSG.
• Build institutional capacity by training more food scientists, inspectors, and risk analysts, while ensuring uniform implementation across states.
• Revise regulations regularly based on emerging science, and promote transparency in decision-making.
• Enhance stakeholder engagement through continuous dialogue with industry, researchers, and consumers to foster trust and collaborative compliance.

India’s food safety framework has evolved into a modern, risk-based system backed by FSSAI’s leadership. However, the journey forward must be anchored in scientific evidence, clear communication, institutional competence, and public trust. Eliminating outdated regulations and strengthening India-specific research are essential to ensure that food safety is not just about compliance but about confidence and informed choices.