Category: AGRICULTURE

Context:  While insecticides are the largest segment, herbicides are growing fastest at 10%+ annually, driven by labour shortages for manual weeding.

India’s crop protection chemicals market (~₹24,500 crore) is dominated by insecticides (₹10,706 crore), fungicides (₹5,571 crore), and herbicides (₹8,209 crore). 

Key Points:

• Market control: Mostly by multinationals like Bayer AG, Syngenta, Corteva, Sumitomo, and Crystal Crop Protection.
• Labour shortage: Manual weeding takes 8–10 hours per acre, repeated multiple times. Rural labour is scarce due to alternative employment, pushing farmers towards herbicides.
• Usage trend: Farmers now use “pre-emergent” herbicides before weeds sprout and “early post-emergent” for initial weed stages. Preventive spraying is replacing curative measures.
• Cost: Herbicides (~₹1,500 crore pre-emergent market) are cheaper than manual labour; pre-emergent herbicide cost is about ₹550 per acre.
• Monopoly concerns: Like seeds and fertilizers, herbicide sales are influenced by corporate promotion, leading to dependence on branded products.

Learning Corner:

Insecticides vs fungicides, vs herbicides 

Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: ECONOMICS

Context : AU Small Finance Bank Gets RBI Nod to Become Universal Bank

The Reserve Bank of India has given in-principle approval for AU Small Finance Bank (AU SFB) to transition into a universal bank. This status will let AU Bank offer a wider range of financial services and products under one roof with fewer restrictions compared to a small finance bank.

Learning Corner:

Small Finance Bank (SFB) – Brief Note

• Origin & Recommendation – The idea of SFBs was recommended by the Usha Thorat Committee (2014), constituted by the RBI to explore new models of financial inclusion. It suggested creating niche banks to serve small business units, small and marginal farmers, micro and small industries, and other unorganised sector entities.
• Related Committees –
  • Usha Thorat Committee (2014) – Recommended SFBs.
  • Nachiket Mor Committee (2013) – Recommended differentiated banking structure, including Payments Banks.
• Purpose – To provide credit and savings facilities to underserved and unbanked sections, with a focus on priority sector lending.
• Key Features –
  • Minimum 75% of Adjusted Net Bank Credit (ANBC) must be given to the priority sector.
  • At least 50% of loans should be up to ₹25 lakh.
  • Must be registered as a public limited company under the Companies Act, 2013 and licensed under Section 22 of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949.
  • Minimum paid-up equity capital: ₹200 crore.
• Examples – AU Small Finance Bank, Equitas Small Finance Bank, Ujjivan Small Finance Bank, Jana Small Finance Bank.

Universal Bank:

• Purpose: Offer a full range of banking and financial services — retail, corporate, investment banking, insurance, mutual funds — under one roof without many of the restrictions applicable to niche banks.
• Regulation: Licensed under RBI’s universal bank guidelines.
• Scope: Broader operational freedom, larger customer base, and wider product portfolio compared to SFBs.
• Example: State Bank of India, HDFC Bank, ICICI Bank.

Key Difference:

• SFBs are targeted, inclusion-driven banks with lending restrictions and high priority sector requirements.
• Universal banks have diversified operations and fewer restrictions, enabling them to serve all segments extensively.

Source:  THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: INTERNATIONAL

Context: US President Donald Trump announced an extra 25% tariff on Indian imports as a penalty for buying Russian energy, adding to an existing 25% tariff. This makes Indian goods face a 50% tariff in the US

Summary

What Trump’s 50% tariff means for India:

• India’s reaction: Called the move unfair and warned of taking all necessary actions to protect national interests.
• Impact: Could reduce India’s GDP by over 0.5 percentage points annually, disrupt supply chains, and hurt small exporters (e.g., textile firms in Ludhiana).
• Trade deficit concerns: Imposing retaliatory tariffs on US imports would harm Indian consumers and potentially widen India’s trade deficit.
• Reasoning: The tariff is less about free trade and more about using economic pressure to achieve political goals, particularly regarding Russia.

Learning Corner:

World Trade Organization (WTO) 

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. It aims to ensure that international trade flows as smoothly, predictably, and freely as possible.

Historical Background

• 1944 – At the Bretton Woods Conference, there was an initial idea for an International Trade Organization (ITO) to complement the IMF and World Bank, but it never came into existence due to lack of ratification by the US Congress.
• 1947 – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) signed as a temporary arrangement to regulate international trade.
• 1948–1994 – GATT evolved through various negotiation rounds (notably the Uruguay Round).
• 1 January 1995 – WTO formally established, replacing GATT, as an outcome of the Uruguay Round (1986–94) negotiations.

Objectives of WTO

• Promote free and fair trade among nations.
• Provide a platform for trade negotiations.
• Settle trade disputes in a rules-based manner.
• Enhance transparency in global trade policies.
• Integrate developing countries into the global trading system.

Key functions

1. Administering WTO Agreements – Includes:
   • GATT 1994 – Trade in goods.
   • GATS – Trade in services.
   • TRIPS – Intellectual property rights.
2. Forum for Negotiations – Trade liberalization and new agreements.
3. Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM) – Through the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB), ensures prompt resolution of conflicts.
4. Monitoring and Review – Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) checks transparency of member states’ policies.
5. Capacity Building – Technical assistance for developing and least-developed countries (LDCs).

Structure of WTO

• Ministerial Conference – Apex decision-making body, meets at least once every 2 years.
• General Council – Day-to-day decision-making; also acts as DSB and TPRB.
• Secretariat – Headquartered in Geneva, led by the Director-General.
• Specialized Councils & Committees – For goods, services, intellectual property, etc.

Membership

• 164 members (as of 2025) + observer nations.
• Decisions are generally by consensus (one member = one vote).

WTO Agreements

1. Goods – GATT 1994, Agreement on Agriculture (AoA), SPS (Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures), TBT (Technical Barriers to Trade).
2. Services – GATS.
3. IPR – TRIPS.
4. Others – Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), Plurilateral Agreements like Government Procurement.

Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM)

• Unique, binding dispute settlement process.
• Steps: Consultations → Panel → Appellate Body → Implementation.
• Crisis – Appellate Body has been non-functional since Dec 2019 due to US blocking judge appointments.

Role for Developing Countries

• Special and Differential Treatment (S&DT) provisions: Longer time frames, lower commitments.
• Technical assistance & capacity building.
• However, developing countries (including India) have raised concerns over imbalance in negotiations, especially in agriculture and TRIPS.

Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) Concept

• Definition: Under the Most-Favoured-Nation principle of the WTO (Article I of GATT 1994), a member country must extend to all other members the same trade advantages (like reduced tariffs or improved market access) that it gives to its “most-favoured” trading partner.
• Core Idea: Non-discrimination in trade — no WTO member can be treated less favourably than another.
• Scope: Applies to trade in goods, services, and intellectual property.
• Exceptions:
  • Regional trade agreements (e.g., EU, ASEAN) under Article XXIV of GATT.
  • Special treatment for developing and least developed countries under the Enabling Clause.
  • Temporary measures for balance-of-payments protection or security concerns.
• Significance: Promotes fairness, prevents trade distortions, and creates a predictable multilateral trading environment.

Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS

Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Context: Understanding prophylaxis: the ‘gold standard treatment’ in haemophilia care

Haemophilia is a rare inherited bleeding disorder, most commonly caused by a deficiency of Factor VIII in Haemophilia A, leading to excessive and spontaneous bleeding, particularly in joints and muscles. In India, only about 20% of the estimated cases are diagnosed due to lack of awareness, limited diagnostic facilities, and socioeconomic barriers, leaving patients vulnerable to disability and reduced life expectancy.

Traditionally, treatment focused on controlling bleeds after they occurred (on-demand therapy), but the modern approach—prophylaxis—involves regular replacement of clotting factors to prevent bleeds entirely. This strategy prevents joint damage, reduces disability, improves quality of life, and lessens the burden on healthcare systems.

Internationally, prophylaxis is the gold standard, with about 90% of haemophilia patients in developed countries receiving it, enabling near-normal life expectancy. In India, on-demand therapy still dominates, though some states have introduced prophylaxis for children in recent years.

Learning Corner:

Prophylaxis 

Meaning:
Prophylaxis refers to preventive treatment or actions taken to protect against a disease before it occurs. The term comes from the Greek prophylaktikos, meaning “to guard beforehand.”

Types:

1. Primary Prophylaxis – Preventing the onset of disease in healthy individuals (e.g., vaccination against measles).
2. Secondary Prophylaxis – Preventing recurrence or worsening of a disease in already exposed or at-risk individuals (e.g., giving antibiotics to prevent rheumatic fever in patients with prior strep throat).
3. Post-exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) – Measures taken after potential exposure to prevent infection (e.g., rabies vaccination after a dog bite).

Examples:

• Vaccines (measles, polio, COVID-19) – primary prophylaxis.
• Antimalarial drugs before travel to endemic areas.
• HIV post-exposure prophylaxis for healthcare workers after needle-stick injury.
• Use of fluoride toothpaste to prevent dental caries.

Importance:

• Reduces incidence of disease.
• Minimizes healthcare burden and costs.
• Protects vulnerable populations.

Source: THE HINDU

Category: AGRICULTURE

Context 100th birth anniversary of M. S. Swaminathan

Early Life & Education

• Full Name: Monkombu Sambasivan Swaminathan
• Born: 7 August 1925, Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu
• Background: Came from a family of farmers and physicians, which shaped his interest in agriculture and rural welfare.
• Education: Studied zoology and agricultural science in India, pursued further studies in plant genetics in the Netherlands and at the University of Cambridge, UK.
• Postdoctoral research in the USA at the University of Wisconsin exposed him to Norman Borlaug’s work on high-yielding wheat.

Key Contributions

1. Green Revolution in India

• Context: In the 1960s, India faced acute food shortages, relying heavily on wheat imports under the PL-480 agreement from the USA.
• Role: As a geneticist at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Swaminathan:
  • Introduced high-yielding, disease-resistant wheat and rice varieties.
  • Advocated package technology: improved seeds, irrigation, fertilizers, pesticides, and supportive policies.
  • Worked closely with Norman Borlaug to adapt Mexican dwarf wheat to Indian conditions.
• Result: India achieved self-sufficiency in food grains by the 1970s, shifting from “ship-to-mouth” dependence to buffer stock surpluses.

2. Institution Building

• Director General, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) (1972–1979).
• Principal Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture (1979–1980).
• Head, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines.
• Founder Chairman, M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) in Chennai (1990) – focuses on sustainable agriculture, biodiversity conservation, and rural empowerment.

3. Policy Interventions

• Championed evergreen revolution – improving productivity without ecological harm.
• Advocated for gene banks and conservation of crop genetic diversity.
• Supported women in agriculture and ICT for rural knowledge dissemination.

Major Reports & Commissions

• Chaired the National Commission on Farmers (2004–2006):
  • Recommended Minimum Support Price (MSP) = Cost of production (C2) + 50%.
  • Focus on farmer-centric policies, risk management, irrigation access, and sustainable technology adoption.

Awards & Honours

• Padma Shri (1967), Padma Bhushan (1972), Padma Vibhushan (1989).
• First World Food Prize laureate (1987).
• UNESCO Gandhi Gold Medal for contributions to science and innovation in agriculture.

Source: PIB

Introduction (Context)

India extracts 25% of the world’s groundwater, more than any other country, for agriculture, industry, and drinking water. Over 85% of rural drinking water and 65% of irrigation water come from below the surface. But overuse, pollution, and climate change are depleting reserves fast.

Groundwater status

National Groundwater Atlas offers a comprehensive assessment of groundwater availability and usage patterns across India.

The Atlas highlights regional disparities in groundwater levels and recharge potential.

• West Bengal and Bihar benefit from fertile alluvial aquifers and river-fed reserves
• Excessive withdrawal especially in Punjab for water-intensive crops like rice has led to significant depletion.
• Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu face severe water stress due to low rainfall, hard rock aquifers, and slow recharge rates.
• Gujarat presents a mixed picture, with some regions experiencing acute shortages while others benefit from river-fed reserves. 

Groundwater contamination

• Groundwater pollution occurs when harmful substances infiltrate underground water sources, posing significant risks to public health and the environment.
• Groundwater is now contaminated with nitrates, heavy metals, industrial toxins, and pathogenic microbes posing grave threat to life.
• Data: As per the 2024 CGWB Report:

• • Nitrate Contamination: Found in 20% of samples across 440 districts; linked to fertiliser overuse and leaking septic tanks.
  • Fluoride: Detected in 9.04% of samples, causing skeletal fluorosis in 66 million people across 20 states.
  • Arsenic: Levels up to 200 µg/L (20x WHO limit) in Ballia (U.P.); widespread in the Gangetic belt.
  • Uranium: Over 100 ppb in parts of Punjab and Andhra Pradesh—linked to fertiliser use and deep borewell withdrawal.
  • Iron, lead, cadmium, mercury: Exceed limits in industrial clusters like Kanpur, Vapi.
  • Pathogenic contamination: Leads to frequent outbreaks of cholera, dysentery, hepatitis A & E.

Health consequences

According to Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and WHO:

• Fluoride contamination: 
  • It affects 230 districts across 20 states. Around 66 million people suffer from skeletal fluorosis that causes joint pain, bone deformities, and stunted growth, particularly in children.
  • In Jhabua (Madhya Pradesh), fluoride levels exceed 5 mg/L, with 40% of tribal children affected. 
  • Unnao (Uttar Pradesh) has recorded over 3,000 skeletal deformity cases.
  • Sonebhadra (U.P.) reported a 52.3% prevalence rate, and levels in Shivpuri (M.P.) reached 2.92 mg/L. 
  • Steps needed: Effective interventions include defluoridation, improved nutrition, and provision of safe drinking water.
• Arsenic: 

• • Concentrated in the Gangetic belt West Bengal, Bihar, U.P., Jharkhand, Assam.
  • Health impacts: Skin lesions, gangrene, respiratory issues, and internal cancers (skin, kidney, liver, bladder, lungs).
  • A study conducted in Bihar, published in Nature Scientific Reports in 2021, reveals that elevated blood arsenic levels make 1 in 100 individuals highly vulnerable to cancer, including cancers of the skin, kidney, liver, bladder, and lungs, as well as other secondary cancer types.
  • In Ballia (U.P.), arsenic concentrations reached 200 µg/L—20 times the WHO limit— linked to over 10,000 cases of cancer and other diseases. In Bihar’s Bhojpur and Buxar districts, similar impacts have been observed. 
• Nitrate contamination:
  • Very common in Northern India, especially in states like Punjab, Haryana, and Karnataka.
  • It happens mainly due to excessive use of chemical fertilisers and leaking sewage systems.
  • Causes “Blue Baby Syndrome” (Methemoglobinemia) when baby formula is mixed with nitrate-contaminated water. Reduces oxygen in the blood of infants, which can be life-threatening.
  • 56% of Indian districts now have unsafe nitrate levels in groundwater.
• Uranium contamination:
  • Earlier limited to specific geological zones, now spreading due to excessive extraction of groundwater and use of phosphate-based fertilisers
  • Malwa Region Study (Punjab) by Central University found uranium levels above WHO’s safe limit of 30 µg/L.
  • Can cause chronic kidney damage (nephrotoxicity) and harm other organs.
• Heavy metals:

• • Heavy metals lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury enter groundwater from unchecked industrial discharges, causing developmental delays, anaemia, immune system issues, and neurological damage.
  • The ICMR-National Institute for Research in Environmental Health (NIREH) found dangerously high blood lead levels among children near industrial clusters in Kanpur (U.P.) and Vapi (Gujarat).

Reasons

Key structural issues include:

• Institutional fragmentation: Agencies such as CGWB, CPCB, SPCBs, and the Ministry of Jal Shakti operate in silos, often duplicating efforts and lacking coordination for integrated, science-based interventions.
• Weak legal enforcement: While the Water Act exists, its enforcement—especially on groundwater discharge—is inadequate. Regulatory loopholes and lax compliance embolden polluters.
• Lack of real-rime, publicly-accessible data: Monitoring is infrequent and poorly disseminated. Without early warning systems or integration with public health surveillance, contamination often goes undetected until after serious health outcomes emerge.
• Over-extraction: Excessive pumping lowers water tables and concentrates pollutants, making aquifers more vulnerable to geogenic toxins and salinity intrusion.

Steps needed

India’s groundwater crisis calls for a bold, coordinated, and multi-dimensional strategy that integrates regulation, technology, health, and public participation. 

Key reforms include:

• A National Groundwater Pollution Control Framework: Clearly define responsibilities across agencies and empower the CGWB with regulatory authority.
• Modernized monitoring infrastructure: Use real-time sensors, remote sensing, and open-access platforms. Integrate water quality data with health surveillance systems like HMIS for early detection.
• Targeted remediation and health interventions: Install community-level arsenic and fluoride removal systems, especially in high-risk regions. Expand piped water access and awareness campaigns.
• Urban and industrial waste reforms: Mandate Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD), regulate landfills strictly, and enforce penalties for illegal discharges.
• Agrochemical reform: Promote organic farming, regulate fertiliser and pesticide use, and encourage balanced nutrient management.
• Citizen-Centric groundwater governance: Strengthen the role of panchayats, water user groups, and school programmes in water testing, monitoring, and advocacy.

Conclusion

Groundwater contamination in India is a silent, slow, and invisible emergency with irreversible consequences. It is no longer just an environmental issue—it is a national public health crisis. With over 600 million lives dependent on this resource, urgent institutional, legal, and technological reforms are non-negotiable. As India envisions a $5 trillion economy, access to safe and clean water must become the foundation of its growth and social equity agenda.

Mains Practice Question

1. “Groundwater contamination in India is a public health crisis masked as an environmental issue.” Analyse the causes, consequences, and policy failures in this context. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: India’s toxic taps: how groundwater contamination is fuelling chronic illnesses – The Hindu

Introduction (Context)

India’s renewable energy capacity crossed the 200 GW milestone as of October 2024, representing a 13.5 per cent year-on-year increase. This includes 92 GW of solar power, 52 GW of Hydro power, 48 GW of wind energy and 11 GW of bio-energy. 

This achievement aligns with India’s broader climate and energy security goals. However, it is also increasingly evident that solar and wind energy alone may not suffice to meet India’s ever-increasing energy needs. These sources are inherently intermittent and seasonal and have spatial restrictions.

Hence, Nuclear energy has emerged as a critical complement to renewable energy in ensuring long-term energy security. (India has set an ambitious target to increase nuclear capacity to 22,800 MW by 2031-32 and 100 GW by 2047).

India’s Nuclear Journey

• India started its nuclear journey with peaceful goals to use nuclear energy for development and self-reliance, not for weapons.
• 1945: Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) was set up to begin nuclear research.
• 1954: Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) were created to expand nuclear development.
• However, after 1962 Sino-Indian War, followed by China’s testing of its first atomic bomb in 1964, India was prompted to shift its nuclear policy.
• In 1968, India refused to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

• A change of leadership in the 1960s (with the death of PM Nehru and his successor Morarji Desai), a war with China in 1962 that India lost, and wars with Pakistan in 1965 and 1971, both won by India, changed the direction of India’s nuclear policy.

Pokhran I – India’s First Nuclear Test

• India conducted its first nuclear test in 1974 in the Pokhran desert in Rajasthan called as “Smiling Buddha”.
• It marked a turning point in India’s nuclear journey, showing that India could build and test a nuclear bomb.
• After the 1974 test, many countries criticized India. In response, 48 countries formed a group called the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).

(NSG is a group of countries that controls the export of nuclear materials and technology. It made rules that countries like India (not signing NPT) cannot easily buy nuclear technology.)

• Despite restrictions, India focused on building its own nuclear technology (indigenous development).
• In 1996, India refused to sign the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) on the grounds that its being largely focused on horizontal non-proliferation rather than on disarmament.

Post Pokharan II

After Pokhran II, India declared its ‘No-First-Use’ policy along with Non-Use against Non-Nuclear Weapons States and Minimum Nuclear Deterrence. 

India also established the Nuclear Command Authority and the Strategic Forces Command, which institutionalised nuclear control in India. 

This helped India to build trust in its nuclear policy and diplomacy.

India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement

• A major turning point in India’s nuclear journey came with the India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement, also known as the 123 Agreement, signed in 2005. 
• This agreement allowed India and the United States to cooperate in the field of civil nuclear energy that is, using nuclear power for peaceful purposes like electricity generation. (without India being member of NPT)
• As a result of this, the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) gave India a special waiver in 2008, allowing it to trade in nuclear technology and fuel globally.

To fulfil the conditions for this waiver, India took some important steps. 

• It voluntarily separated its civilian and military nuclear programmes. This means India clearly marked which nuclear reactors would be used for peaceful purposes (like producing electricity) and which would be for defence. 
• India also signed an agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to bring its civilian nuclear reactors (those using imported uranium) under international safeguards. This means IAEA inspectors can check these facilities to make sure the nuclear material is not being used for weapons.
• After this, India was accepted into three major international export control groups—Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), the Australia Group, and the Wassenaar Arrangement. These groups help control the spread of weapons, chemicals, and sensitive technology. 

Present nuclear capacity and future targets

• India currently has 24 working nuclear power reactors, most of which follow a design called Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR). 
• These reactors together generate about 8180 megawatts of electricity. 
• The entire nuclear power setup is mainly operated by a government-owned company called Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL).

Budget 2025-26

• Government has introduced ‘Nuclear Energy Mission (NEM) to build up 100 GW of nuclear power capacity by 2047. 
• This mission focuses on making India self-reliant in nuclear technology, encouraging both public and private partnerships, and developing Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) — a new and safer type of nuclear reactor. 
• The government has set aside Rs 20,000 crores to develop these SMRs.

Challenges

• At the international level, India still does not have membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), which limits access to advanced nuclear technologies.
• India’s Atomic Energy Act of 1962 gives full control of nuclear energy to the government. This means private or foreign companies cannot participate in setting up nuclear plants.
• Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010, which holds the supplier responsible in case of a nuclear accident. This is different from the global norm where the operator, not the supplier, is usually held liable. Because of this, foreign companies hesitate to invest in India’s nuclear projects. The government is now planning to change the nuclear laws to make them more investment-friendly.

Steps Needed to Strengthen India’s Nuclear Energy Future

• Develop more indigenous (locally made) Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and Fast Breeder Reactors.
• Invest in research and innovation for cost-effective and safe reactor designs.
• Revise the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 to allow private and foreign companies to participate in nuclear energy production.
• Modify the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 to align with global norms and reduce supplier liability fears.
• Strengthen nuclear safety frameworks and emergency response systems.
• Develop training programs for engineers, scientists, and technicians in nuclear technology.

Mains Practice Question

Q To support the vision of Viksit Bharat, nuclear energy has the potential to position India as a global leader in sustainable nuclear technology and steer it towards a cleaner, self-reliant future. Evaluate. (250 words, 15 marks)

Source: UPSC Science and Environment Current Affairs 2025: How India’s nuclear vision supports a sustainable tomorrow