Archives
(PRELIMS Focus)
The Litani River: A Strategic Waterway at the Heart of Regional Tensions
Subject: Geography & International Relations
News Context/Background:
Recently, Israeli airstrikes destroyed the Qasmiyeh Bridge, a key crossing over the Litani River on The Litani River has regained strategic focus in the Israel–Hezbollah conflict, serving as a key boundary under UN Security Council Resolution 1701, which mandates the area south of it remain free of armed groups except Lebanese forces and UNIFIL.
Key Details & Important Facts:
Geographical Significance: The Litani is the longest and most important river in Lebanon, originating west of Baalbek. It flows through the Bekaa Valley, cuts a deep gorge through the Lebanon Mountains, and empties into the Mediterranean Sea south of Sidon.
Strategic Depth: The area south of the Litani River has been a buffer zone and area of contention. The river serves as a natural defensive line, often cited as a boundary for demilitarization.
Economic Importance: It is crucial for Lebanon’s water supply, irrigation (especially in the Bekaa Valley, which contains nearly half of Lebanon’s arable land), and hydroelectricity (via the Qaraoun Dam).
Tributaries & Dams: Key tributaries include the Berdawni and Chtoura rivers. The major dam on the river is the Qaraoun Dam (also known as El Wauroun Dam).
Keywords for Prelims:
Locations: Litani River, Bekaa Valley, Qasmiyeh Bridge, Sidon, Mediterranean Sea, Lebanon Mountains.
Organizations/Agreements: Hezbollah, UNIFIL, UN Security Council Resolution 1701.
Concepts: Geopolitics of Water, Buffer Zone, Transboundary Water Issues.
Physical Features: Gorge, Tributaries.
Core Theme & Analysis:
The Litani River is a key geopolitical boundary in the Israel–Lebanon context. Attacks on infrastructure like the Qasmiyeh Bridge highlight its strategic role in disrupting logistics. Its geography underpins regional conflict dynamics, relevant for UPSC on West Asian rivers and UN Resolution 1701.
Source: https://theprint.in/world/with-litani-river-as-marker-israel-reveals-plans-to-create-security-zone-with-lebanon/2888782/
Corporate Laws (Amendment) Bill: Balancing Compliance Burden with Accountability
Subject: Polity & Economy
News Context/Background:
The Corporate Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2026, introduced on March 23, seeks to amend the Companies Act, 2013 and Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) Act, 2008, to decriminalise minor offences and improve ease of doing business, and has been referred to a JPC for scrutiny.
Key Provisions:
CSR Threshold Increase: Raises the net profit threshold for mandatory CSR from ₹5 crore to ₹10 crore, exempting smaller companies while retaining the net worth (₹500 crore) and turnover (₹1,000 crore) criteria.
Decriminalisation: Shifts 21 minor offences from criminal penalties to a monetary fine-based adjudication mechanism via an e-adjudication platform.
Hybrid Meetings: Allows companies to hold AGMs/EGMs through video conferencing (VC), with at least one physical AGM required every three years.
Self-Declaration: Replaces certain affidavits with self-declarations.
Unspent CSR Funds: Increases the timeline for transferring unspent CSR funds from ongoing projects to a scheduled bank account from 30 days to 90 days.
Conversion Framework: Introduces a framework for converting specified trusts (registered under SEBI/IFSC) into LLPs.
Keywords for Prelims:
Acts: Companies Act, 2013; Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) Act, 2008.
Organizations: National Financial Reporting Authority (NFRA), Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC).
Concepts: Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Decriminalisation, Ease of Doing Business, Adjudication Mechanism, Hybrid AGM/EGM.
Provisions: Section 135 (CSR), Section 459 (Adjudication of Penalties).
Core Theme & Analysis:
The Bill reflects a balance between ease of doing business and regulatory oversight. While the government stresses decriminalisation and growth, concerns remain over excessive delegation, CSR dilution, and governance standards; JPC referral highlights its political and constitutional sensitivity.
Source: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/corporate-laws-amendment-bill-what-it-changes-objections-10600989/
Mission Indradhanush Targets Cervical Cancer: Balancing Scientific Evidence with Public Trust
Subject: Social Justice & Governance
News Context/Background:
India has included the HPV vaccine (Gardasil-4) under Mission Indradhanush from March 2026, providing a single dose to 14-year-old girls to reduce cervical cancer burden, which causes around 1.2 lakh cases and 80,000 deaths annually.
Key Details & Important Facts:
Disease Burden: India accounts for a substantial share of global cervical cancer deaths, making it a critical public health priority.
Vaccine Efficacy Evidence:
A large Swedish cohort study (published in BMJ, Feb 2026) of nearly 1 million women over 18 years showed:
79% lower risk of cervical cancer for women vaccinated before age 17.
Protection lasting at least 13-15 years.
Other global studies confirm significant reductions in HPV infections, precancerous lesions, and cancer risk.
Controversies & Concerns:
Safety Concerns: Past controversies include a 2009 Phase 4 trial in Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat where deaths among participants occurred; no causal link was established, but public perception was affected.
Misinformation: Rumours about infertility and other side effects circulate on social media, fuelling vaccine hesitancy.
Foreign vs. Indigenous Vaccine: The programme currently uses Gardasil-4 (MSD) while the indigenous vaccine Cervavac (Serum Institute of India) is under evaluation by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) for single-dose efficacy.
Regulatory & Safety Framework:
Adverse Events Following Immunization (AEFI) system in India tracks vaccine safety but relies on voluntary reporting, leading to undercounts.
Global surveillance includes the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) in the US.
Funding: In 2023, GAVI, the Vaccine Alliance approved a $250 million grant to India to support HPV and typhoid conjugate vaccine introduction.
Keywords for Prelims:
Disease: Cervical Cancer, Human Papillomavirus (HPV).
Vaccines: Gardasil-4, Cervavac.
Schemes/Programmes: Mission Indradhanush, Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP).
Organizations: Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Serum Institute of India (SII), GAVI (the Vaccine Alliance), World Health Organization (WHO), National Technical Advisory Group on Immunisation (NTAGI).
Concepts: Vaccine Hesitancy, Pharmacovigilance, Adverse Events Following Immunization (AEFI).
Core Theme & Analysis:
The HPV vaccine rollout under Mission Indradhanush is a major step in cancer prevention, but success depends on public trust, transparent rollout, safety monitoring, and tackling misinformation. Challenges include past controversies, vaccine debates, and ensuring high coverage.
Source: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/ramping-up-the-fight-against-cervical-cancer/article70785535.ece
NHRC: The Guardian of Human Rights in India
Subject: Polity & Governance
News Context/Background:
The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India has recently taken suo motu cognizance of two grave human rights issues:
The reported death of 16 people due to consumption of adulterated milk in East Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, since mid-February 2026.
The reported death of 285 inmates in different jails in Chhattisgarh over the past four years.
About NHRC: Establishment and Status
Constitutional & Statutory Basis:
Not a Constitutional Body: The NHRC is a statutory body, established under the Protection of Human Rights Act (PHRA), 1993.
Amendments: Amended in 2006, 2019, and 2024 to align with international standards and enhance its effectiveness.
Status: It is the apex human rights body in India, often described as the “watchdog of human rights.”
Definition of Human Rights (under PHRA, 1993):
Human rights are the rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Constitution (Fundamental Rights) or embodied in the International Covenants and enforceable by courts in India.
International Covenants:
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 1948
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
High-Powered Committee for Appointments (as per 2019 Amendment):
Prime Minister (Chairperson)
Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha
Speaker of Lok Sabha
Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha
Union Home Minister
Tenure and Removal
Tenure: The Chairperson and members hold office for a term of three years or until the age of 70 years, whichever is earlier.
Re-appointment: Eligible for re-appointment for a second term (as per 2019 Amendment).
Removal: Can be removed by the President on grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity after an inquiry by the Supreme Court.
Powers and Functions: How NHRC Operates
Function
Description
Suo Motu Cognizance
Can take up cases on its own based on media reports, NGO inputs, or any information revealing human rights violations (as seen in recent AP and Chhattisgarh cases).
Investigation Powers
Has powers of a civil court (summoning, requiring discovery of documents, receiving evidence).
Intervention
Can intervene in any proceeding involving human rights violation pending before a court.
Visits
Can visit any jail or institution to study living conditions and make recommendations.
Recommendations
Recommends compensation, disciplinary action, or prosecution to the concerned government/authority.
Annual Report
Submits an annual report to the President, which is laid before Parliament.
Research & Promotion
Promotes human rights literacy, research, and awareness through various programs.
Important Limitations:
Recommendations Not Binding: NHRC’s recommendations are advisory in nature, not binding. The government is required to inform the Commission of action taken within a stipulated time.
Cannot Punish: NHRC cannot punish violators; it can only recommend prosecution.
No Power Over Armed Forces: Cannot inquire into human rights violations by armed forces except with the central government’s approval.
UPSC-Oriented Analysis: Static-Dynamic Linkages
Static Linkage
Dynamic Application
Article 21 — Right to Life
Adulterated milk deaths (public health failure) and prison deaths (custodial rights)
Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993
Suo motu cognizance power, quasi-judicial functions, recommendatory nature
Separation of Powers
NHRC’s role as a check on executive action without being a court
Federal Structure
Relationship between NHRC, SHRCs, and state governments
International Covenants
India’s commitment to UDHR, ICESCR, ICCPR and their domestic integration via PHRA
Source: https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2245532®=3&lang=1
https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2245531®=3&lang=1
LPG vs. LNG: Key Differences and Why the West Asia War Hit LPG Harder
UPSC Syllabus Coverage: Economy (Energy Security), Geography (Strategic Chokepoints), Science & Tech (Hydrocarbons)
Recent Context:
The ongoing US-Israel-Iran war has severely disrupted energy supplies, with the Strait of Hormuz—a critical chokepoint for global energy flows—being a major flashpoint. India’s LPG supplies have been more immediately affected than its LNG supplies.
LPG vs. LNG: A Quick Comparison
Feature
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas)
Primary Composition
Propane & Butane
Methane (CH₄)
Source
Byproduct of crude oil refining & natural gas processing
Natural gas cooled to cryogenic temperatures
Liquefaction
Under moderate pressure or low temperature
Cryogenic cooling to -162°C
Density
Heavier than air (sinks, accumulates in leaks)
Lighter than air (disperses quickly in leaks)
Transportation
Cylinders (road transport)
Specialized cryogenic ships → regasification terminals → pipelines
Storage
Pressurized cylinders (easy, portable)
Cryogenic tanks (complex, energy-intensive)
End-Use
Domestic cooking, industrial heating, auto fuel
Converted back to natural gas for PNG (households), CNG (vehicles), power, fertilizers
Infrastructure
No pipeline required; reaches remote areas
Requires pipeline network for last-mile delivery (PNG)
Key Factors for LPG’s Greater Vulnerability:
Higher Chokepoint Concentration: A massive 90% of India’s LPG imports flow through the Strait of Hormuz, compared to ~60% for LNG.
Portability vs. Infrastructure: LPG’s strength (portability) becomes a weakness during a maritime blockade, as it lacks an alternative pipeline network. Natural gas, while also impacted, has a more diversified import basket and a growing domestic pipeline infrastructure for distribution.
Domestic Production Buffer: In response to the crisis, the government increased domestic LPG production by 40% (now meeting 55% of demand vs. 40% earlier). This was achieved by diverting propane and butane streams from petrochemical manufacturing.
Safety and Convenience: PNG vs. LPG
Aspect
PNG (Piped Natural Gas)
LPG (Cylinder)
Safety
Safer: Natural gas is lighter than air, disperses quickly in a leak.
Riskier: LPG is heavier than air, accumulates near the ground, increasing fire/explosion risk.
Convenience
More convenient: Uninterrupted supply, metered like electricity; no booking/refilling hassle.
Less convenient: Requires booking, cylinder handling, and manual replacement.
Infrastructure
Requires pipeline network at doorstep.
No pipeline needed; reaches any area via road transport.
UPSC-Oriented Analysis
Static Linkages:
Geography: The Strait of Hormuz as a global energy chokepoint.
Science: Cryogenic storage, hydrocarbon chemistry (methane vs. propane/butane), specific gravity and safety implications.
Economy: Energy security, import dependency, strategic petroleum reserves (here, LPG/LNG).
Dynamic Linkages:
Recent Government Measures: Diverting petrochemical feedstocks to increase LPG production, rationing supplies, and incentivizing a shift to PNG.
Policy Push: Accelerating the City Gas Distribution (CGD) network to expand PNG coverage, reducing long-term vulnerability to LPG supply shocks.
Possible Prelims Angles:
Which gas is lighter than air (LNG/PNG) and which is heavier (LPG)?
What percentage of India’s LPG imports transit the Strait of Hormuz? (90%)
What is the primary component of LNG? (Methane)
How is LPG produced? (Refining byproduct)
What is the role of the Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB)? (Regulates CGD networks)
Source: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-sci-tech/lpg-lng-differences-composition-uses-supply-india-hormuz-10598858/
(MAINS Focus)
Transgender Persons Amendment Bill, 2026: A Flawed Fix
UPSC Mains Subject: GS Paper II – Social Justice (Vulnerable Sections) | GS Paper I – Society
Sub-topic: Mechanisms for Protection of Vulnerable Sections; Issues Relating to Marginalized Communities
Introduction
The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Amendment Bill, 2026, aims to fix gaps in the 2019 law but has drawn criticism for conflating diverse identities, restricting the definition of transgender persons, and replacing self-identification with medical certification.
By overlooking key concerns like civil rights, internal exploitation, and non-consensual intersex surgeries, it risks reinforcing structural inequalities while raising concerns about dignity, privacy, and equality.
Constitutional & Legal Framework
Provision
Relevance
Article 14
Right to equality—non-discrimination on grounds of gender identity
Article 15
Prohibition of discrimination—extends to gender identity (NAZ Foundation v. Govt. of NCT, 2009)
Article 21
Right to life and personal dignity—includes right to self-perceived gender identity (NALSA v. Union of India, 2014)
Transgender Persons Act, 2019
Original framework recognizing transgender identity; faced implementation gaps
Amendment Bill, 2026
Seeks to fix vagueness but introduces new contradictions
The Supreme Court in NALSA (2014) recognized transgender persons as a third gender and affirmed the right to self-identification without medical intervention—a principle the 2026 Bill explicitly undermines.
Key Changes Introduced by the Amendment Bill
Provision
2019 Act
2026 Amendment
Definition
Inclusive, based on self-perceived gender identity
Narrowed to specific identities (kinner, hijra, aravani, intersex variations)
Self-Identification
Right to self-perceived gender identity
Removed; replaced with medical board certification
Certifying Authority
District Magistrate
Medical board headed by Chief Medical Officer
Intersex Inclusion
Included under transgender umbrella
Retained conflation; no separate recognition
Exploitation Penalties
General provisions
Rigorous imprisonment (5–14 years) for forced begging/servitude
Civil Rights
Not addressed
Still absent (marriage, adoption, inheritance, divorce)
Structural Flaws: Conflation of Distinct Identities
Identity
Nature
Distinct Needs
Transgender
Psychological and social construct; gender identity distinct from sex assigned at birth
Self-identification, gender-affirming care, anti-discrimination
Intersex
Biological spectrum of sex characteristics (1–2% globally)
Ban on non-consensual surgeries, medical ethics, separate recognition
Critical Issue: The Bill continues to lump intersex persons under “transgender,” erasing intersex-specific needs. Intersex infants face non-consensual “normalizing” surgeries causing lifelong trauma—yet the Bill contains no ban on such procedures, violating Article 21 (bodily integrity) and privacy.
International Standards Violated:
UN and WHO define intersex as distinct from transgender
Forcing intersex persons into transgender category undermines human rights frameworks India has committed to uphold
Erosion of Self-Identification & Medicalization of Identity
NALSA (2014) affirmed: “Self-identified gender is a fundamental right.”
The Bill replaces this with:
Medical board certification
Mandatory hospital reporting of transgender surgeries
Exclusion of non-heteronormative gender fluid identities
This medicalization recreates the very barriers the 2019 Act sought to dismantle and contradicts global best practices moving toward self-declaration models (as seen in countries like Argentina, Ireland, and Norway).
Entrenchment of Exploitative Structures
Issue
Analysis
Hijra Jamath-Gharana System
Colonial-era structure where chief nayaks control chelas’ earnings from begging and prostitution; traps gender-nonconforming children in bonded labour
Amendment’s Effect
Penalizes external perpetrators but leaves internal hierarchies untouched; effectively legitimizes and codifies exploitative structures
Children’s Vulnerability
Gender-nonconforming children abandoned by families are thrust into these systems; police often refuse to register missing complaints; no rehabilitation framework
Historical Context: Earlier Indic frameworks were more inclusive and affirming of diverse identities, free from colonial distortions—a heritage the Bill ignores.
Omissions: Civil Rights & Intersectionality
Absent Provisions:
No civil rights: marriage, adoption, inheritance, divorce, succession
No intersectional lens: caste, disability, poverty, religion—transgender persons from SC/ST or disabled backgrounds face compounded discrimination without targeted remedies
No mandate for genetic counselling, India-specific longitudinal studies on affirming surgeries
Inadequate privacy safeguards for medical data
Impact: Transgender and intersex persons remain excluded from the very institutions—family, marriage, inheritance—that define citizenship and dignity in Indian society.
Critical Analysis: Strengths & Weaknesses
Strengths
Weaknesses
Increased penalties for forced exploitation
Undermines NALSA’s self-identification principle
Acknowledges implementation gaps of 2019 Act
Conflates distinct identities; erases intersex-specific needs
Medicalizes identity; violates privacy and bodily autonomy
Leaves hijra exploitative structures intact
No civil rights; no intersectionality
Way Forward
Separate Sex & Gender Identity: Official documents must distinguish between sex identity (male/female/intersex) and gender identity—addressing root causes of data invisibility
Separate Intersex Legislation: Ban non-consensual “normalizing” surgeries on intersex infants; mandate genetic counselling; align with UN CRPD recommendations
Restore Self-Identification: Reverse medicalization; reinstate right to self-perceived gender identity as affirmed in NALSA
Dismantle Exploitative Structures: Reform hijra jamath-gharana system; create rehabilitation framework for gender-nonconforming children; ensure police accountability
Civil Rights Framework: Extend marriage, adoption, inheritance, and succession rights to transgender persons
Rebrand Institutions: Rename National Council for Transgender Persons as GIESC (Gender Identity/Expression and Sex Characteristics) Welfare Council to reflect inclusive, scientifically accurate framework
Intersectionality: Targeted remedies for transgender persons from SC/ST, disabled, and economically vulnerable backgrounds
Conclusion
The Transgender Persons Amendment Bill, 2026, seeks reform but deepens flaws by narrowing definitions, medicalizing identity, and ignoring civil rights. It undermines the constitutional vision of dignity, equality, and privacy in NALSA, highlighting the need for an inclusive, rights-based framework.
UPSC Mains Practice Question
Critically analyze the Transgender Persons Amendment Bill, 2026, in light of the NALSA (2014) judgment and constitutional guarantees of dignity and equality. What principles should guide a more inclusive transgender rights framework? (250 words, 15 marks)
Source: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/the-transgender-persons-amendment-bill-is-a-flawed-fix/article70784907.ece
India’s Enhanced Climate Ambition: Balancing Development with Decarbonisation
UPSC Mains Subject: GS Paper III – Environment & Ecology (Climate Change) | GS Paper II – International Relations
Sub-topic: Climate Change Policies; International Treaties & Agreements; Energy Security
Introduction
India’s updated NDCs under the Paris Agreement raise its non-fossil power target to 60% by 2035, cut emissions intensity by 47%, and expand carbon sinks, reaffirming climate commitment while balancing development and CBDR-RC principles.
Background: India’s Climate Commitment Framework
Instrument
Key Features
Paris Agreement (2015)
Requires signatories to submit NDCs every five years, reflecting progressively higher ambition
First NDC (2022)
2030 targets: 50% non-fossil installed capacity; 44% emissions intensity reduction; 2.5–3 billion tonne carbon sink
Updated NDC (2026)
2035 targets: 60% non-fossil installed capacity; 47% emissions intensity reduction; 3.5–4 billion tonne carbon sink
India was among the last G-20 nations to submit its 2035 NDC, with 128 parties (78% of global emissions) having already submitted theirs by December 2025.
Current Status: Achievements & Gaps
Indicator
Current Status
Target
Non-fossil installed capacity
~52% (achieved ahead of 2030 deadline)
60% by 2035
Non-fossil power generation
~25% (due to intermittency of renewables)
–
Emissions intensity reduction
36% achieved (2005–2020)
47% by 2035
Carbon sink
1.97 billion tonnes (2005–2019)
3.5–4 billion tonnes by 2035
Forest cover
24.6% of geographical area (2021)
National policy goal: 33%
Key Observation: While installed capacity targets are being met ahead of schedule, the share of non-fossil power generation lags significantly due to the intermittent nature of solar and wind energy, highlighting the need for storage solutions and grid modernization.
Significance: Why These Targets Matter
Climate Leadership from the Global South:
Amid rollback of climate policies and unilateral trade measures by developed countries, India’s enhanced ambition signals concrete leadership from developing nations
Reinforces the principle of CBDR-RC—India is taking voluntary action despite low historical emissions
Energy Security & Economic Rationale:
Targets harmonize climate action with developmental priorities and energy security
Reflects recognition that energy prices and transmission constraints cannot be taken for granted
Reduces import dependence over the long term
Global Stocktake (GST) Alignment:
The GST (2021–2023) concluded that global efforts are insufficient to limit warming to 1.5°C
India’s enhanced NDC responds to the GST’s call for increased ambition while contextualizing it within national realities
Challenges & Implementation Gaps
Challenge
Implication
Intermittency of Renewables
52% installed capacity yields only 25% generation; requires massive investment in battery storage and pumped hydro
Transmission Infrastructure
Renewable-rich states (Rajasthan, Gujarat) require robust inter-state transmission corridors
Land Availability
Large-scale solar and wind projects face land acquisition hurdles
Forest Cover Gap
Current 24.6% forest cover falls short of 33% national policy goal; carbon sink target demands accelerated afforestation
Finance & Technology
Transition requires significant investment; developed countries’ commitment of $100 billion annually remains unfulfilled
Energy Security vs. Transition
Coal remains dominant in generation mix; balancing just transition with energy demand growth is critical
Critical Analysis: Strengths & Limitations
Strengths:
Credibility: India has consistently overachieved on its climate pledges
Developmental Alignment: Targets are integrated with broader economic goals, ensuring political sustainability
Global Positioning: Positions India as a bridge between Global South aspirations and climate action imperatives
Limitations:
Installed Capacity vs. Actual Generation: Target focuses on capacity, not dispatchable clean energy—a distinction crucial for actual emission reductions
Ambition Gap: Independent analysts note that even enhanced targets are insufficient to keep global warming within 1.5°C; developed countries must lead with deeper cuts
Finance Dependency: Achieving targets requires external climate finance and technology transfer, which remain uncertain
Way Forward
Grid Modernization: Accelerate investment in battery storage, pumped hydro, and green hydrogen to address intermittency
Just Transition: Develop policies for coal-dependent regions and workers as the energy mix shifts
Forest Cover Expansion: Strengthen afforestation programs with community participation to meet carbon sink targets
Climate Finance: Leverage multilateral platforms to press for fulfillment of developed countries’ finance commitments
Private Sector Participation: Create enabling policy environment for private investment in renewables, storage, and transmission
Conclusion
India’s updated NDC for 2035 reflects higher ambition balanced with development needs and CBDR-RC principles. While reinforcing its global leadership, achieving targets will require addressing challenges in transmission, storage, and finance, showing climate action and development can be mutually reinforcing.
UPSC Mains Practice Question
“India’s updated NDC targets for 2035 reflect a balance between climate ambition and developmental imperatives.” Critically examine the significance, challenges, and global messaging of India’s enhanced climate commitments. (250 words, 15 marks)
Source: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/india-raises-clean-energy-ambition-with-60-non-fossil-fuel-power-goal-by-2035/article70784465.ece