Archives
(PRELIMS & MAINS Focus)
EXCAVATION IN RATNAGIRI
Syllabus:
Prelims – ART & CULTURE, HISTORY
Context: The Archaeological Survey of India recently resumed excavations at Odisha’s Ratnagiri Buddhist complex, uncovering a colossal Buddha head, a massive palm, an ancient wall, and inscribed relics from the 8th-9th Century AD.
Background: –
The discoveries are significant, especially given Odisha’s historical relationship with Buddhism beginning with Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (304-232 BCE), one of Buddhism’s greatest patrons whose invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga – the ancient name for Odisha – led to him embracing the religion.
Key takeaways
Ratnagiri — the centre of ancient Buddhist learning
Located 100 km northeast of Bhubaneswar and part of the famous Diamond Triangle of Odisha along with Udaygiri and Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri – translated as the ‘Hills of Jewels’ – was first documented as a historical site in 1905.
The last excavations carried out between 1958 and 1961 led to the discovery of many remains — including a brick stupa, three monastic complexes and over hundreds of votive and commemorative stupas.
However, with the ASI eventually shifting focus on sites such as Lalitgiri, where the oldest Buddhist monastery in the state was found, the Ratnagiri excavation was put on the backburner.
Experts date Ratnagiri to the 5th and 13th Century, although the peak period of construction is dated between the 7th and 10th centuries. Ratnagiri rivalled Nalanda as a learning centre.
There are some studies that suggest that the renowned Chinese Buddhist monk and traveller, Hiuen Tsang, who visited Odisha, during 638-639 AD, might have visited Ratnagiri.
Odisha, Southeast Asia and Buddhism
Odisha has long enjoyed maritime and trade links with Southeast Asian countries: pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, silk, camphor, gold, and jewellery were popular items of trade between the ancient kingdom of Kalinga and Southeast Asia.
Even though there was no evidence of Buddha visiting Odisha during his lifetime, Kalinga played a great role in popularising Buddhism, especially in Southeast Asia, because of its trade link: experts believe that Tapassu and Bhallika, the two merchant brothers who became the first disciples of Lord Buddha, having their origins from Utkala, another ancient name of Odisha.
Mauryan Emperor Ashoka is believed to have invaded Kalinga in 261 BC but, deeply moved by the bloodshed, he embraced Buddhism, which he eventually helped spread not only to his own empire but also to Sri Lanka, and Central and Southeast Asia.
In Odisha, Buddhism is stated to have particularly flourished under the Bhaumakara dynasty, which ruled parts of the state in between the 8th and 10th Century.
Odisha annually holds Baliyatra, literally ‘voyage to Bali’ – a seven-day festival to commemorate the 2,000-year-old maritime and cultural links between Kalinga and Bali and other South and Southeast Asian regions such as Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Burma (Myanmar) and Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
Source: Indian Express
DEATH PENALTY
Syllabus:
Mains – GS 2 & GS 4
Context: A sessions court in Kolkata sentenced Sanjoy Roy, convicted of the rape and murder of a doctor at RG Kar Medical College, to life imprisonment. The CBI had argued strongly for the death penalty in the case that shook West Bengal and triggered several weeks of protests.
Background: –
The Supreme Court has held that a sentence of death should be passed only in the “rarest of rare” cases, after the court has considered possible “aggravating” and “mitigating” circumstances (Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab, 1980).
Key takeaways
In Bachan Singh, the SC considered a challenge to the constitutionality of the death penalty. It upheld the death penalty, but said it should be imposed only in the “rarest of rare” cases where there is no possibility of reformation.
The five-judge Constitution Bench did not specify the standards to determine whether the death penalty should be imposed, but laid down non-exhaustive lists of “aggravating” and “mitigating” circumstances for courts to consider while making the decision.
Aggravating circumstances, which could tilt the court’s decision towards the death penalty:
If the murder is pre-planned, calculated, and involves extreme brutality;
If the murder involves “exceptional depravity”;
If the accused has been found guilty of murdering a public servant, police officer or a member of the armed forces while on duty, or because of anything they may have lawfully done while discharging their duty.
Mitigating circumstances, which could tilt a case away from the death penalty:
Whether the accused was “under the influence of extreme mental or emotional disturbance” at the time of the offence;
Age of the accused; they would not be given death if they are very young or very old;
Probability of the accused posing a continued threat to society;
Probability of reforming the accused;
If the accused was acting on the directions of another person;
If the accused believed their actions were morally justified;
If the accused suffers mentally and is unable to appreciate the criminality of their actions.
The understanding of mitigating and aggravating circumstances has evolved over the years, and new factors have been added through several decisions.
In Machhi Singh v. State of Punjab (1983), the SC held that death could be given in cases where the “collective conscience” of society is so shocked that the judiciary is expected to impose the death penalty.
In Santosh Bariyar v. State of Maharashtra (2009), the SC said “the court will have to provide clear evidence as to why the convict is not fit for any kind of reformatory and rehabilitation scheme”.
The Law Commission of India noted in its 262nd Report (2015), The Death Penalty, age as a mitigating factor has been used very inconsistently.
The Law Commission Report said the requirement for evidence was held as essential in Bariyar for introducing an element of objectivity into the sentencing process.
When should the court consider these circumstances?
In Bachan Singh, the SC said courts must conduct a separate trial after convicting, so that judges can be persuaded why the death sentence should not be imposed.
In Dattaraya v. State of Maharashtra (2020), the court held that such a hearing did not take place, and that this was a valid reason to commute a death sentence to life imprisonment.
Source: Indian Express
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
Syllabus:
Prelims – CURRENT EVENT
Context: The United States will exit the World Health Organization, President Donald Trump said, saying the global health agency had mishandled the COVID-19 pandemic and other international health crises.
Background:
The move means the U.S. will leave the United Nations health agency in 12 months’ time and stop all financial contributions to its work. The United States is by far the WHO’s biggest financial backer, contributing around 18% of its overall funding.
Key takeaways
The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) responsible for international public health.
Founded: April 7, 1948 (celebrated as World Health Day).
Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.
Regional Offices: Six regional offices and over 150 field offices globally to enhance the reach and impact of WHO initiatives.
The WHO South-East Asia Regional office in based in New Delhi.
Governance Structure
World Health Assembly (WHA):
Decision-making body with representatives from all member states.
Meets annually to set priorities and approve the budget.
Executive Board:
Comprises 34 technical experts elected for three years.
Advises and implements WHA decisions.
Director-General: Chief executive officer of the WHO, elected by the WHA.
Source: The Hindu
MOUNT IBU
Syllabus:
Prelims – GEOGRAPHY
Context: Indonesia’s Mount Ibu has erupted at least a thousand times this month, according to an official report, as efforts are under way to evacuate thousands of villagers.
Background: –
Mount Ibu sent a column of smoke up to 4 km into the sky in an eruption on January 15. It was one of 1,079 eruptions by the volcano recorded since January 1 by Indonesia’s Geological Agency, sending columns of ash reaching between 0.3 km and 4 km above its peak.
Key takeaways
Mount Ibu is classified as a stratovolcano, which indicates a conical volcano built up by many layers of hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash.
Situated on Halmahera Island, Indonesia.
Positioned within the Pacific Ring of Fire, an area known for frequent volcanic activity and earthquakes.
Why is Mount Ibu Important?
Geological Significance: Part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, contributing to the study of plate tectonics and volcanic processes.
Hazard Management: Frequent eruptions require effective disaster management strategies to protect local populations.
Biodiversity: Halmahera Island, where Mount Ibu is located, is part of the Wallacea region, known for unique biodiversity.
Global Climate Impact: Volcanic eruptions release sulfur dioxide and ash into the atmosphere, potentially influencing weather patterns and global temperatures.
Source: The Hindu
BOREAL FORESTS
Syllabus:
Prelims – GEOGRAPHY
Context: Nearly half of the global boreal forests — spanning Canada, Alaska and Siberia — are undergoing major transitions due to climate change, making them increasingly vulnerable to forest fires and altering their role as a key carbon sink, a new study has revealed.
Background: –
Boreal forests, also known as Taiga, are the largest terrestrial biome on Earth, forming a critical part of the planet’s ecological balance.
Key takeaways
Boreal forests are primarily found in the high northern latitudes, forming a circumboreal belt around the world, spanning across northern Europe, Asia, and North America.
They are located between temperate forests in the south and the Arctic tundra in the north.
Characteristics
Climate: Boreal forests experience long, cold winters and short, mild summers. The regions are characterized by low temperatures, low precipitation, and frequent snow cover.
Vegetation: The predominant vegetation consists mainly of coniferous trees like pines, spruces, and larches. There are also some deciduous trees, such as birches and poplars. Understory vegetation includes shrubs, mosses, and lichens.
Soils: The soils in boreal forests are usually acidic and nutrient-poor, formed under cool, moist conditions which slow down the decomposition of organic matter. This results in a thick layer of litter on the forest floor.
Ecological Importance
Carbon Storage: Boreal forests are vital carbon sinks, holding more carbon than all tropical forests combined. The accumulation of organic matter, under cold temperatures, leads to large stores of carbon.
Biodiversity: They support a variety of wildlife adapted to the cold, such as moose, caribou, wolves, bears, and many bird species. These forests also provide essential breeding grounds for several migratory bird species.
Hydrology: Boreal forests contain substantial amounts of surface freshwater and play a critical role in regulating the water cycle.
Source: Down To Earth
Practice MCQs
Daily Practice MCQs
Q1.) Mount Ibu, recently in the news, is located in which of the following countries?
(a) Japan
(b) Indonesia
(c) Philippines
(d) Papua New Guinea
Q2.) Which of the following statements is/are correct about Boreal Forests?
They are predominantly located in the Southern Hemisphere.
Boreal forests act as significant carbon sinks, holding more carbon than tropical forests.
Coniferous trees like pines and spruces dominate the vegetation in boreal forests.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2, and 3
Q3.) Consider the following statements about the World Health Organization (WHO):
The WHO was established in 1945 as a specialized agency of the United Nations.
Its headquarters is located in Geneva, Switzerland.
The Director-General of the WHO is elected by the Executive Board.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 2 only
Comment the answers to the above questions in the comment section below!!
ANSWERS FOR ’ Today’s – Daily Practice MCQs’ will be updated along with tomorrow’s Daily Current Affairs
ANSWERS FOR 21th January – Daily Practice MCQs
Answers- Daily Practice MCQs
Q.1) – b
Q.2) – a
Q.3) – d