rchives
(PRELIMS Focus)
Golden jackals
Category: ENVIRONMENT
Context: Golden jackals in Kerala have shown remarkable adaptability to human-dominated landscapes, thriving beyond traditional forests in areas like agricultural lands, village edges, and peri-urban zones
They exploit food sources from human activities, such as waste and livestock carrion, demonstrating a flexible diet and strong scavenging ability. This ecological plasticity allows them to survive habitat fragmentation and loss. However, their growing presence near human settlements raises concerns about potential conflicts and disease transmission, highlighting the need for effective management of human-wildlife interactions.
Learning Corner:
Golden Jackal (Canis aureus)
IUCN Status:
Least Concern (LC)
Distribution:
Native to South Asia, Middle East, North and East Africa, and Southeastern Europe.
In India, they are found across the subcontinent — from forests and grasslands to rural, agricultural, and urban fringes.
Habitats:
Golden jackals occupy a diverse range of habitats, including:
Dry deciduous forests
Scrublands
Grasslands and savannas
Mangroves and wetlands
Agricultural fields
Peri-urban and rural areas
Key Features:
Size: Medium-sized canid (8–10 kg on average)
Color: Golden to reddish-brown fur
Diet: Omnivorous and opportunistic — includes rodents, birds, fruits, insects, carrion, and human food waste
Behavior: Can be solitary, in pairs, or small family groups; mostly nocturnal
Ecological Role: Important scavenger, helps control rodent populations and clean up carrion
Conservation Concerns:
Human-wildlife conflict (livestock predation, urban presence)
Disease transmission (rabies, canine distemper)
Habitat loss and fragmentation
Source: THE HINDU
Private Test Facility for Heavy Water Upgrade
Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Context: India has inaugurated its first private test facility for upgrading depleted heavy water (D₂O), a critical component for nuclear reactors. Located in Palghar, Maharashtra
Key highlights:
The facility will test equipment needed to upgrade depleted D₂O to 99.9% purity, required for Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs).
Earlier, components were manufactured and tested in-house by BARC; this move aims to cut time by at least two years.
TEMA India will also manufacture parts for the distillation process and ensure correct results before deployment.
The facility has already dispatched components for Unit 8 of the Rajasthan Atomic Power Project (RAPP-8).
The project supports India’s aim of achieving 100 GW nuclear capacity by 2047.
India currently operates 24 nuclear reactors with a combined capacity of 8,780 MW, with more under construction.
Learning Corner:
Heavy Water (D₂O)
Definition:
Heavy water is a form of water in which the hydrogen atoms are replaced with deuterium (²H or D), a stable isotope of hydrogen that has one neutron in addition to the proton.
Key Features:
Chemical Formula: D₂O
Appearance: Looks like ordinary water but is about 10% denser
Non-radioactive
Uses:
Primarily used as a moderator and coolant in Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)
Slows down neutrons to sustain the nuclear fission chain reaction
Also used in scientific research and isotope production
Importance in Nuclear Power:
Maintains neutron economy by reducing neutron absorption
Enables the use of natural uranium as fuel without enrichment
Purity Requirement:
Must be 99.9% pure to function effectively in reactors
Gets contaminated over time and needs re-upgrading through distillation or other methods
India’s Context:
India uses heavy water extensively in PHWRs
BARC oversees heavy water production and upgrading
Now, private firms like TEMA India are also contributing to testing and upgrading processes
Safety:
Non-toxic in small quantities, but not suitable for drinking in large amounts
Not radioactive but handled with care in nuclear facilities
Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS
Monsoon
Category: GEOGRAPHY
Context : Monsoon at Mid-Season – India Records 8% Above-Normal Rainfall
As of July 28, 2025, India’s southwest monsoon has performed well, with 8% above-normal rainfall (440.1 mm) from June 1 to July 28. Most regions recorded normal or above-normal rainfall, except east and northeast India, which saw a deficit of 23%.
Regional Rainfall (June 1–July 28):
Central India: 574.4 mm (+24%)
Northwest India: 447.8 mm (+6.9%)
South Peninsula: 351.8 mm (+1.6%)
East & Northeast: 316.9 mm (−23%)
Key Points:
Punjab, Bihar, Sikkim, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and Meghalaya have seen persistent rain deficiency.
July is the most crucial monsoon month and has shown 5.4% above-normal rainfall so far.
Back-to-back low-pressure systems and depressions over Bay of Bengal sustained rainfall across most parts of India.
Learning Corner:
Monsoon
Definition:
Monsoon refers to the seasonal reversal of winds accompanied by changes in precipitation. In South Asia, it primarily denotes the Southwest Monsoon, which brings the majority of India’s annual rainfall.
Types of Monsoon in India:
Southwest Monsoon (June–September):
Brings ~75% of India’s annual rainfall
Caused by differential heating of land and ocean
Divided into two branches: Arabian Sea Branch and Bay of Bengal Branch
Northeast Monsoon (October–December):
Affects mainly southeastern India (Tamil Nadu, parts of Andhra Pradesh)
Importance of Monsoon:
Agriculture: Supports kharif crops like rice, maize, and pulses
Water Resources: Replenishes rivers, lakes, and groundwater
Economy: Impacts rural demand, food security, and hydropower
Factors Influencing Monsoon:
El Niño and La Niña events
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
Western disturbances
Low-pressure systems and depressions in Bay of Bengal
Challenges:
Uneven distribution causes floods or droughts
Delayed onset or withdrawal affects sowing cycles
Climate change is increasing unpredictability in monsoon behavior
Source : THE INDIAN EXPRESS
National Education Policy (NEP)
Category: POLITY
Context Five Years of NEP
What Has Worked
School Curriculum Revamp: The 10+2 system is being replaced by the 5+3+3+4 structure. NCERT has published new books for classes 1–8, emphasizing experiential learning.
Early Childhood Education: Pre-primary learning is being strengthened with materials like NCERT’s Jaadui Pitara.
Foundational Learning Focus: National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy (NIPUN Bharat) launched to ensure reading and math skills by class 3.
Academic Credit System: National Credit Framework allows flexible credit transfer and course entry/exit.
CUET (Common University Entrance Test): Implemented in 2022 as a common entrance test for undergraduate admissions.
Indian Campuses Abroad: IITs and IIMs have set up campuses in Africa and the Gulf; foreign universities are coming to India.
What’s In Progress
Board Exam Changes: From 2026, CBSE to allow class 10 students to choose subjects and take board exams twice a year.
Holistic Report Cards: PARAKH under NCERT is developing assessments with self-evaluation and skills focus.
Four-Year UG Degrees: Being rolled out slowly due to infrastructure gaps.
What’s Stuck and Why
Three-Language Formula: Remains controversial; some states like Tamil Nadu oppose Hindi imposition.
Teacher Education Overhaul: 4-year integrated B.Ed. course announced but not yet implemented.
UGC’s Replacement Delayed: The Higher Education Commission of India (HECI) bill is still pending.
Mother Tongue in Schools: Implementation from pre-primary to class 5 is partial.
No School Breakfast Yet: Financial Ministry rejected the breakfast proposal for schools.
Centre–State Divide: States like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal have pushed back against several key reforms.
Learning Corner:
History of the National Education Policy (NEP) in India
The National Education Policy (NEP) is India’s vision document for guiding the development of the education system. Since independence, India has had three major NEPs:
National Education Policy 1968
First NEP, based on the recommendations of the Kothari Commission (1964–66).
Emphasized free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14.
Advocated the three-language formula, improvement in the quality of education, and equal educational opportunities.
National Education Policy 1986 (Modified in 1992)
Introduced by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and later modified under P.V. Narasimha Rao in 1992.
Focused on removal of disparities, education for women, and improving teacher education.
Introduced Operation Blackboard, Navodaya Vidyalayas, and the Programme of Action (1992).
Emphasized vocationalisation, open learning systems, and child-centric education.
Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS
Textile sector
Category: ECONOMICS
Context: Govt working on ‘living wage’
Key Points:
Issue at Hand:
Low wages are a key barrier to women’s participation in formal employment.
54% of blue- and grey-collar women employees are unhappy with pay; 80% earn less than ₹20,000/month.
High costs (transport, childcare, caregiving, migration) and low pay force many women out of the workforce.
Current Government Initiative:
The Ministry of Labour and Employment is working on defining a “living wage”—a wage that goes beyond the minimum wage and considers housing, education, healthcare, and nutrition.
Aimed at addressing gender disparity, especially in the low female labour force participation rate (LFPR), which is just 32% (vs. 77% for men).
Survey Insights:
Based on a survey of over 10,000 women, especially in peri-urban zones and manufacturing sectors.
Shows high dissatisfaction with current income benchmarks.
Challenges Identified:
Women’s workforce participation is hindered by:
Inadequate income,
Lack of supportive services (like child care),
Safety and transport issues,
Unsuitable job timings (e.g. night shifts).
Policy Direction:
Living wage to be state-specific.
Emphasis on building a “social dialogue” between employers and employees.
Learning Corner:
Types of Wages in India
Minimum Wage
The lowest remuneration legally payable to workers.
Fixed by the Central or State Government under the Minimum Wages Act, 1948.
Varies across states, skill levels (skilled/unskilled), and industries.
Ensures basic sustenance (food, shelter, clothing).
Fair Wage
Higher than minimum wage, but lower than living wage.
Considers the industry’s capacity to pay and standard of living.
Aims to strike a balance between workers’ needs and employers’ financial health.
Living Wage
The ideal wage, which covers not only basic necessities but also education, health, insurance, transportation, and some comfort.
Not legally enforced in India yet, but under consideration for implementation.
Designed to improve quality of life and encourage women’s workforce participation.
Need-Based Minimum Wage
Recommended by the 15th Indian Labour Conference (1957) and accepted by the Supreme Court in 1992 (Reptakos Brett case).
Based on calorie intake, clothing, housing rent, education, and other essentials.
A more realistic and humane version of minimum wage.
Statutory Wage vs. Market Wage
Statutory wage: Mandated by law (e.g., minimum wage).
Market wage: Determined by demand and supply in the labor market (often higher for skilled sectors).
Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS
(MAINS Focus)
Pendency of Cases and Access to Justice (GS paper II - Polity and Governance)
Introduction (Context)
India’s judicial system is facing a severe backlog, with over 5 crore pending cases across the Supreme Court, High Courts, and subordinate courts, raising concerns over timely justice delivery.
Despite reforms, structural bottlenecks, human resource shortages, and inefficient case management continue to delay justice, undermining public trust and access to speedy justice.
Litigation Pendency In India
Pendency means undecided, undetermined case by court of law. Pending cases are increasing day by day this shows the incapability of the judiciary to deliver justice on time.
The Right to Fair and Speedy trial is guaranteed as fundamental right under Article 21 (Right to life and personal liberty) of the Constitution of India, 1950, delay in justice delivery system infringe this right.
Law commission stated that the delay in decision is as old as the law itself. The inordinate delay results in the miscarriage of justice and increases the cost of litigation.
Data:
Over 4.6 crore cases are pending in district and subordinate courts.
63.3 lakh in High Courts and 86,700 in the Supreme Court.
Civil cases at the district court level are the most delayed, with only 38.7% resolved within a year; nearly 20% drag on for over 5 years.
India has 15 judges per 10 lakh population; even at full strength, it would be only 19, against the Law Commission’s 1987 recommendation of 50.
The judicial system is operating at 79% of sanctioned strength.
Between 2021 and March 2025, National Lok Adalats resolved over 27.5 crore cases, including 22.21 crore pre-litigation cases.
Reasons for Delay in Deciding Cases in India
India’s judicial system is plagued by massive pendency due to multiple structural, procedural, and administrative factors. The major causes are as follows:
Shortage of Judges and Court Infrastructure
India has an extremely low judge-to-population ratio — about 11 judges per million, compared to 107 per million in the US.
Vacancies across all levels remain unfilled for long periods, affecting timely case disposal.
Subordinate courts alone require over 5,000 new courtrooms and nearly 40,000 staff positions to support existing and additional judicial officers
Many courts lack basic infrastructure, trained staff, or digital case management systems, resulting in inefficiency and delays.
Administrative and Procedural Inefficiencies
Lack of case management tools and uniform use of IT systems means cases are not tracked or prioritised efficiently.
Judges often deal with both civil and criminal matters, reducing specialisation and slowing case analysis.
Frequent transfers, absenteeism, and strikes by advocates disrupt the judicial schedule.
Traditional, manual processes still dominate many courtrooms, lacking automation and speed.
High Volume of Cases and Low Disposal Rates
A rising number of cases filed daily, coupled with a slow disposal rate, especially in subordinate courts, contributes to pendency.
Government is the largest litigant, accounting for nearly half of all pending cases, often with ministries or departments suing one another.
Large volumes of frivolous or repetitive cases, and Public Interest Litigations (PILs) filed without genuine public interest, further clog the system.
Frequent Adjournments and Litigation Misuse
Deliberate adjournments by lawyers or litigants, even in trivial matters, delay proceedings significantly.
Abuse of procedural tools and filing of false or frivolous cases take up valuable court time.
Legal and Social Factors
Increasing legal awareness and growing rights-consciousness among citizens has led to higher litigation rates.
There is a rise in criminal cases, particularly crimes against women, increasing the burden on police, judiciary, and prisons.
Constant amendments to laws and complex, overlapping legislations require more judicial time to interpret and apply.
Lack of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Promotion
Insufficient push towards mechanisms like mediation, arbitration, or conciliation keeps minor disputes in the court system.
A lack of awareness and institutional support for ADR increases dependency on formal litigation.
What is the Impact of Pendency of cases on the Judicial System?
Justice delayed is justice denied. Delay in case disposal undermines the right to life and liberty under Article 21 of the Constitution
Even simple civil matters take years to resolve; many criminal cases have remained pending for over 15 years, with undertrial prisoners languishing in jails.
Prolonged pendency leads to overcrowded prisons, often exceeding 150% of their capacity.
Undertrials, many not yet proven guilty, remain incarcerated for extended periods, infringing their basic human rights and dignity.
Lengthy delays discourage people from seeking legal remedies, leading to loss of faith in the system.
Many resort to extra-legal methods like bribery or informal settlements to avoid slow judicial processes, indirectly fostering corruption.
Suggested Reforms to Reduce Pendency of Cases
1. Expanding Court Capacity
Increase Working Days & Shifts: Extend court functioning hours, including holidays, by introducing morning/evening shifts and additional benches
Fast Track Courts: Expand the fast-track court model beyond criminal cases to include civil and commercial matters.
2. Filling Vacancies and Appointing Ad-Hoc Judges
Vacancy Backlog: Expedite the appointment of judges at all levels, especially in subordinate courts.
Ad-Hoc Appointments: Utilize provisions under Articles 127 and 128 of the Constitution for appointing retired or eligible judges to tackle backlog.
3. Strengthening Court Administration
Appointment of Court Managers: Deploy trained professionals to assist judges in administrative tasks, allowing them to focus solely on adjudication.
Trained Support Staff: Skilled clerical and technical staff should be recruited for efficient court management.
4. Effective Case and Time Management
Time-Bound Disposal: Set time limits for routine matters, supported by annual action plans and monitoring systems.
Discouraging Adjournments: Enforce Order 17 of the Civil Procedure Code strictly—limit adjournments to three and impose penalties for delays.
Avoiding Frivolous Litigation: Filter out baseless cases early through stringent scrutiny by the judiciary.
5. Leveraging Technology
Digital Courts: Continue and expand e-filing, virtual hearings, online document submission, and real-time tracking of case status.
of AI: Deploy Artificial Intelligence for routine, repetitive, and pattern-based cases (e.g., traffic fines, cheque bounce cases).
6. Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
Mediation, Arbitration, Lok Adalats: Promote out-of-court settlements to reduce litigation load
Success of Lok Adalats: Between 2021 and March 2025, Lok Adalats resolved over 27.5 crore cases, including 22.21 crore pre-litigation and 5.34 crore pending cases.
Conclusion
Judicial reforms are imperative to ensure timely, affordable, and accessible justice in India. Persistent pendency and delays have eroded public trust in the legal system and undermined the principle of speedy justice enshrined in the Constitution.
A multi-pronged approach—strengthening court infrastructure, appointing adequate judges, enforcing strict timelines, integrating technology, and institutionalizing case management—can drastically improve judicial efficiency.
Mains Practice Question
Q “Despite several reforms, judicial pendency continues to hamper access to timely justice in India.” Critically analyse the causes and suggest measures to overcome the delays in India’s judicial system. (250 words, 15 marks)
Source: https://epaper.thehindu.com/reader?utm_source=Hindu&utm_medium=Menu&utm_campaign=Header&_gl=1*a9fyy3*_gcl_au*NTM5MTIxNzU2LjE3NTI0MjkwMzQuMTkzOTM3NzM4LjE3NTM3NjA1MTEuMTc1Mzc2MDUxMQ..
Financial Inclusion (GS paper III – Economy)
Introduction (Context)
As per the Financial Inclusion Index (FI-Index) released by the RBI, financial inclusion across the country improved to 67 in March 2025, up from 64.2 in March 2024.
Hence, in this article we are analysing the concepts associated with financial inclusion.
What is Financial Inclusion?
Financial inclusion may be defined as the process of ensuring access to financial services and timely and adequate credit where needed by vulnerable groups such as weaker sections and low income groups at an affordable cost
These include not only banking products but also other financial services such as insurance and equity products
RBI identified six strategic objectives of a national strategy for financial inclusion:
universal access to financial services,
providing basic bouquet of financial services,
access to livelihood and skill development,
financial literacy and education,
customer protection and grievance redressal, and
effective coordination.
Role of Financial Inclusion in Sustainable Development
Financial inclusion plays a key role in achieving 7 out of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
It boosts economic growth, supports job creation, and helps in reducing poverty.
By offering access to credit, savings, insurance, and digital payments, it helps small businesses grow, create employment, and increase productivity.
Access to insurance protects people from financial shocks, giving them confidence to take economic risks.
It empowers women by giving them tools to manage finances, start businesses, and improve their decision-making power, helping reduce the gender gap.
It builds climate resilience by enabling people and businesses to adopt sustainable practices, invest in climate-friendly technologies, and recover faster from natural disasters.
Over 80% of adults without bank accounts live in climate-vulnerable areas, making financial inclusion critical for both economic and environmental stability.
What is Financial Inclusion Index?
It is a composite index created by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to measure the level of financial inclusion in India.
It was first published in August 2021, for the financial year ending March 2021.
The index covers data from five key sectors: Banking, Investments, Insurance, Postal services and Pension.
The score ranges from 0 to 100:
0 = Complete financial exclusion
100 = Full financial inclusion
The index has three major parts with different weights:
Access (35%) – Availability of services (like bank branches, ATMs)
Usage (45%) – How frequently people use financial services
Quality (20%) – Includes: Financial literacy, Customer protection and Service quality and fairness
Financial inclusion index 2025: Data
FI index for Financial Year 2025 has improved and stands at 67 percent as compared to 64.2 percent for FY 2024.
As per RBI, the improvement in FI Index in FY25 is largely due to usage and quality dimensions, reflecting deepening of financial inclusion, and sustained financial literacy initiatives.
Government flagship initiatives for financial inclusion
Financial inclusion has been a key tool used by policymakers and governments globally to reduce inequalities, strengthen livelihoods of people at the bottom of the pyramid, and spur growth.
Some of the important schemes are:
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY):
It was launched in 2014, with a mission of financial inclusion to ensure access to financial services, namely, basic savings & deposit accounts, remittance, credit, insurance, pension in an affordable manner.
Under the PMJDY, there are no account opening charges, no account maintenance charges, and no minimum balance charges.
Free RuPay debit card, with in-built accident insurance cover of Rs 2 lakh, and access to overdraft facility of up to Rs 10,000, are other major features of the scheme.
PMJDY accounts are eligible for Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY), Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY), Atal Pension Yojana (APY), Micro Units Development & Refinance Agency Bank (MUDRA) scheme.
As of July 9 2025, over 55.83 crore accounts have been created. These accounts give people direct access to government benefits and a safe place to save money.
Digital India Programme
It was launched in 2015, with the vision to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy.
It comprises various initiatives under a single programme, each targeted to prepare India for becoming a knowledge economy and for bringing good governance to citizens through synchronised and coordinated engagement of the entire government.
Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) App, Goods and Services Tax Network (GSTN), Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA), Aarogya Setu app, Digital India BHASHINI, and Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC) are some of the initiatives under the Digital India programme.
India’s Unified Payments Interface is also now the world’s number one real-time payment system. It has surpassed Visa to take the lead in processing daily transactions. UPI handles more than 640 million transactions every day, compared to Visa’s 639 million. (PIB).
Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY):
It is a one-year life insurance Scheme renewable from year to year.
It offers coverage of Rs. Two lacs for death due to any reason and is available to people in the age group of 18 to 50 years having a bank account.
Aadhar inclusion:
The pillar of financial inclusion is the JAM (Jan Dhan, Aadhaar, Mobile) trinity, which has expanded the coverage of direct benefit transfers.
Through the implementation of its biometric identification system ‘Aadhar’, the government has enabled easy accessibility for opening bank accounts, and thus leading to financial inclusion.
Atal Pension Yojna:
Launched in 2015 by the Government of India, the scheme is particularly targeted at unorganised sector workers, who often lack access to formal pension schemes.
APY encourages workers to save voluntarily for their retirement, thereby ensuring a secure financial future.
Under APY, the subscribers would receive the fixed minimum pension of Rs. 1000 per month, Rs. 2000 per month, Rs. 3000 per month, Rs. 4000 per month and Rs. 5000 per month at the age of 60 years, depending on their contributions, which itself would be based on the age of joining APY. The age bracket for joining APY is 18 to 40 years.
Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY):
It is a one-year personal accident insurance Scheme, renewable annually.
It provides coverage for death/disability due to an accident and is available to people in the age group of 18 to 70 years, having a bank account and who give their consent to join and enable auto-debit.
Key Challenges to Financial Inclusion in India
Low Financial Awareness: Many people, especially in rural areas, are unaware of the benefits of banking, insurance, and credit, leading to low participation in formal finance.
Weak Infrastructure: Lack of bank branches, ATMs, reliable electricity, and internet in remote regions limits access to financial services.
Digital Gaps: Many lack smartphones, internet access, or the skills to use digital financial tools, making online services difficult to use.
High Delivery Costs: Serving remote locations involves higher costs for banks, often making it financially unviable.
Lack of Trust: People with little experience or negative past interactions with banks often hesitate to engage with formal institutions.
Language Hurdles: Limited use of local languages in banking materials and apps creates barriers for non-English speakers.
Gender Gaps: Cultural and social norms often restrict women’s access to banking services, resulting in fewer women owning or using accounts.
Cash-Driven Informal Economy: Heavy reliance on cash and informal transactions slows the adoption of digital and formal financial tools.
Dormant Accounts: Many accounts opened under schemes like PMJDY are inactive, showing a gap between access and usage.
Limited Credit Access: Low-income individuals and informal businesses often struggle to get affordable loans due to lack of credit history or proper documentation.
Complex Regulations: KYC and other compliance norms can be difficult to navigate for the financially excluded, as well as challenging for service providers.
These barriers highlight the need for holistic solutions—combining better infrastructure, education, trust-building, gender inclusion, and simpler digital tools—to make financial inclusion truly meaningful across India.
Mains Practice Question
Q “Financial Inclusion is not just about opening bank accounts but about meaningful participation in the economy.” Elaborate. (250 words, 15 marks)
Source: https://indianexpress.com/article/upsc-current-affairs/upsc-essentials/knowledge-nugget-rbi-financial-inclusion-index-economy-upsc-10144929/