rchives
(PRELIMS Focus)
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
Category: INTERNATIONAL
Context: International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague ruled that countries are obligated under international law to take action against climate change
In a historic decision, the, particularly by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate impacts. Failure to do so could be deemed an “internationally wrongful act,” making such countries liable for compensation, especially to vulnerable nations like small island states.
This advisory opinion, sought by the UN General Assembly, clarifies legal obligations under treaties like the UNFCCC, Paris Agreement (2015), UNCLOS, and others focused on environmental protection. Though non-binding, it is seen as a major milestone for climate justice and could influence future legal actions globally.
Learning Corner:
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
Overview:
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN).
Established in 1945 by the UN Charter and began functioning in 1946.
Headquartered at the Peace Palace, The Hague, Netherlands.
Mandate & Jurisdiction:
The ICJ performs two main functions:
Contentious Jurisdiction:
Settles legal disputes between states submitted voluntarily by them.
Judgments are binding, without appeal, and enforceable under Article 94 of the UN Charter.
Advisory Jurisdiction:
Provides non-binding legal opinions on questions of international law referred by:
UN General Assembly,
UN Security Council,
Other UN agencies authorized to seek opinions.
Composition:
15 judges, elected for 9-year terms.
Elected by both the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council.
Judges must represent the main forms of civilization and principal legal systems of the world.
No two judges may be from the same country.
Judges act in their individual capacity and not as representatives of their governments.
Key Features:
Only states (not individuals, companies, or NGOs) can be parties in contentious cases.
Cases can involve disputes over:
Border demarcation,
Maritime rights,
Human rights violations,
Use of force,
Treaty interpretation,
Environmental responsibility, etc.
Its rulings help develop international law, though enforcement depends on the Security Council.
Important Articles:
Article 92 – ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the UN.
Article 94 – UN member states must comply with ICJ judgments.
Article 96 – UNGA and UNSC may request advisory opinions.
Landmark Cases:
Nicaragua v. United States (1986) – U.S. was found guilty of violating international law by supporting Contra rebels in Nicaragua.
Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (1996).
Chagos Archipelago case (2019) – Ruled UK should end its administration of the Chagos Islands.
Climate Advisory Opinion (2025) – Ruled that failure to act on climate change can constitute an internationally wrongful act, making states liable for damages.
Comparison with Other International Courts:
Court
Jurisdiction
Binding Judgments
Parties
ICJ
Legal disputes between states
Yes (for parties)
States only
ICC (International Criminal Court)
Crimes like genocide, war crimes
Yes
Individuals
PCA (Permanent Court of Arbitration)
Wider disputes (incl. investment)
Yes (via arbitration)
States, individuals, organizations
Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS
Paikas
Category: HISTORY
Context: Omission of Paikas from NCERT class 8
About Paikas:
Paikas were a warrior class who served the Gajapati kings of Odisha.
They held land (nish-kar jagirs) in exchange for military service.
British Annexation & Discontent:
In 1803, British officer Colonel Harcourt annexed Odisha with little resistance.
The British dethroned King Mukunda Deva II and ignored promises to grant four parganas.
The new British rule caused:
Loss of land and political status for Paikas,
New revenue demands,
Dispossession of tribal and peasant communities,
Salt taxes and coastal trade restrictions.
The 1817 Paika Rebellion:
Led by Bakshi Jagabandhu, over 400 Kondh tribals and Paikas revolted.
Rebels attacked British establishments and looted treasury offices.
Though suppressed, resistance continued until 1825.
Learning Corner:
Important Tribal Revolts in British India
Tribal uprisings were a major component of early resistance against colonial rule. These revolts were primarily sparked by the British disruption of tribal autonomy, exploitation by landlords and moneylenders, encroachment on forest rights, and interference in socio-religious customs.
Santhal Rebellion (1855–56)
One of the most significant tribal uprisings, it was led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu in the Rajmahal Hills of present-day Jharkhand. The rebellion was against oppressive zamindars, moneylenders, and British revenue officials. It was brutally suppressed but forced the British to enact the Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act later.
Munda Ulgulan (1899–1900)
Led by Birsa Munda, this movement in the Chotanagpur region aimed at restoring the Khuntkatti system of joint landholding. It combined tribal identity, religious reform, and anti-colonial resistance. Birsa Munda is revered as a messianic figure and martyr.
Kol Uprising (1831–32)
The Kols of Chotanagpur revolted against British interference in their political system and exploitation by outsiders. Leaders like Budhu Bhagat spearheaded this uprising, which was triggered by land alienation and administrative overreach.
Bhil Rebellions (1818–1831)
The Bhils of western India (mainly Rajasthan and MP) revolted multiple times during the early 19th century. These were primarily localized responses to famine, British land policies, and displacement. Govind Guru was a later Bhil leader who organized the Mangadh uprising in 1913.
Khond Rebellion (1846–1855)
The Khonds of Odisha rose in protest against British suppression of their religious customs (notably human sacrifice) and forest encroachments. The rebellion, led by Chakra Bisoi, also had millenarian elements.
Rampa Rebellion (1879 & 1922–24)
The Koya tribals in Andhra Pradesh resisted British forest laws that curtailed their traditional rights. The 1922 phase was led by Alluri Sitarama Raju, who used guerrilla tactics and invoked nationalist and tribal sentiments. He was captured and executed in 1924.
Chuar Uprisings (1767–1799)
The Chuars, mainly the Bhumij tribals of Bengal (Midnapore and Bankura), resisted land revenue hikes and British oppression. Leaders like Durjan Singh and Jagannath Singh led the early uprisings, which were among the first tribal resistances to colonial policies.
Common Themes Across Tribal Revolts
Local leadership with deep tribal legitimacy.
Reaction to loss of land, forests, and autonomy.
Often accompanied by religious reform or revivalism.
Largely militant and spontaneous, lacking coordination with pan-Indian movements.
Though suppressed, they laid the foundation for future mass movements and tribal rights activism.
Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS
AdVacFxalVax
Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Context : The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has developed a promising malaria vaccine candidate named AdVacFxalVax.
It is showing over 90% protection against Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest malaria parasite. It is now set for further testing, trials, and commercial development in partnership with private companies.
Significance:
Malaria remains a major global killer, especially in Africa and parts of Asia.
Despite a decline, India still reported ~170,000 cases and 83 deaths in 2022.
Existing vaccines like RTS,S show limited protection, and AdVacFxalVax could be a game-changer with longer immunity.
How It Works:
The vaccine uses two parts of the parasite (PfCSP and Pf34/48) to stimulate both antibody and T-cell responses.
It triggers two lines of defense:
Prevents liver infection,
Stops parasite spread from infected red blood cells.
Advantages of AdVacFxalVax:
Uses alum adjuvant (safe, reliable immune booster).
Potential for longer-lasting protection.
Safe in animal trials; human trials pending.
Trends:
Malaria cases in India dropped from 2.93 million in 1995 to ~0.18 million in 2022.
Deaths fell from 1,707 in 1997 to 83 in 2022.
Learning Corner:
Malaria
Malaria is a potentially life-threatening parasitic disease transmitted by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. It remains a significant public health concern in many tropical and subtropical regions, including India.
Causative Agent
Caused by Plasmodium parasites.
Five species infect humans:
Plasmodium falciparum (most deadly)
P. vivax (most common in India)
P. malariae
P. ovale
P. knowlesi (zoonotic)
Transmission
Transmitted by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, primarily at night.
Can also be transmitted via blood transfusion, organ transplant, or shared needles.
Symptoms
High fever with chills, headache, vomiting, and sweating.
Severe cases (especially P. falciparum) can cause cerebral malaria, organ failure, or death.
Diagnosis & Treatment
Diagnosed via blood smear microscopy, Rapid Diagnostic Tests (RDTs), and PCR (in research settings).
Treated with antimalarial drugs such as:
Chloroquine
Artemisinin-based Combination Therapy (ACT)
Primaquine (for P. vivax and P. ovale to kill liver-stage hypnozoites)
Prevention & Control
Vector control: Insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs), Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS), larval source management.
Chemoprophylaxis: For travelers to endemic regions.
Vaccine: RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix) is the first malaria vaccine approved (mainly for children in Africa). India has not rolled it out nationally yet.
Malaria in India
India aims to eliminate malaria by 2030 under the National Framework for Malaria Elimination (NFME).
Implemented via National Center for Vector Borne Diseases Control (NCVBDC).
Decline in cases due to improved surveillance, treatment, and vector control.
Endemic states: Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Tripura, and parts of the Northeast.
Source : THE INDIAN EXPRESS
MiG-21
Category: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Context: MiG-21s to Retire
After 62 years of service, the Indian Air Force will retire its last MiG-21 fighter jets in September 2025, with a ceremonial farewell at Chandigarh. The jets, operated by No. 23 Squadron (Panthers), will be replaced by indigenous Tejas Mk1A aircraft.
Glorious Beginnings
Inducted in 1963, India became one of the first non-Soviet countries to operate supersonic jets.
The MiG-21 gave India a critical edge with its speed and intercept capabilities.
Combat Legacy
The MiG-21 played a key role in:
1965 & 1971 wars with Pakistan – achieving aerial victories and conducting ground attacks.
Kargil conflict (1999) – supported precision bombing missions.
The “Flying Coffin” Controversy
Over 400 accidents led to more than 170 pilot deaths and 40 civilian casualties.
Causes included mechanical failures, bird hits, pilot errors, and aging airframes.
Its retirement was delayed due to delays in replacement programs, further heightening safety concerns.
Learning Corner:
MiG-21
The MiG-21 (Mikoyan-Gurevich 21) is a Soviet-origin supersonic jet fighter aircraft that became a critical part of India’s air defence architecture during the Cold War and beyond.
Key Highlights
Induction in India:
Introduced into the Indian Air Force (IAF) in 1963, the MiG-21 was the first supersonic fighter jet of India.
Origin:
Designed by the Soviet Union (USSR) during the 1950s.
Versions in India:
India operated various variants, notably:
MiG-21FL
MiG-21M
MiG-21bis
MiG-21 Bison (upgraded version with modern avionics and radar)
License Production:
India manufactured MiG-21s under license via Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
Source: THE INDIAN EXPRESS
Dhruva Policy
Category: POLITY
Context:
The Dhruva Policy (Digital Hub for Reference and Unique Virtual Address) is a landmark initiative by the Department of Posts to transform how addresses are created, shared, and managed in India. It introduces a precise, interoperable, and privacy-respecting digital addressing framework to support governance, e-commerce, emergency services, and more.
Key Components
DIGIPIN
A 10-character alphanumeric digital code.
Maps every address to a unique 4×4 meter grid using geospatial coordinates.
Designed to replace traditional PIN codes with hyper-local precision.
Developed indigenously with open-source, interoperable architecture.
Digital Address Layer
Allows users to create personalized digital address handles
Consent-based sharing and revocation of address details.
Enables privacy, customization, and real-time address updates—similar to UPI.
Core Benefits
Accuracy: Eliminates ambiguity in legacy addresses.
Inclusion: Serves both urban and rural populations; multilingual support.
Governance: Aids in scheme targeting, disaster response, and infrastructure planning.
Commerce: Reduces delivery failures in logistics and e-commerce.
Privacy: User-controlled access and sharing of address data.
Use Cases
E-commerce deliveries, social welfare targeting, emergency services, telecom rollout, utility management, and personal address management.
Dhruva aims to be for addresses what UPI is for payments—secure, standardized, and citizen-friendly.
Source: PIB
(MAINS Focus)
Testing on Animals (GS paper III – Science and Technology, GS Paper IV - Ethics)
Introduction (Context)
Animals are generally used in experiments and research to assess the safety, toxicity, efficacy, or biological effects of drugs, chemicals, or procedures. There is a growing concern about the ethical implications and effectiveness of animal testing.
Hereby analysing the issue in detail.
What is Animal Testing?
Animal testing, involves using animals in experiments to assess the safety and effectiveness of products like medicines, cosmetics, and household products, or to advance scientific knowledge.
Animal experiments include:
injecting or force-feeding animals with potentially harmful substances
surgically removing animals’ organs or tissues to deliberately cause damage
forcing animals to inhale toxic gases
subjecting animals to frightening situations to create anxiety and depression.
Which Animals are used in Testing?
Commonly used:
Vertebrates: Mammals (rats, mice, dogs, monkeys), birds, fish, amphibians.
Some invertebrates: e.g. octopuses (recognised under European law).
Other animals used:
Horses, cows, sheep, pigs
Legal definitions vary:
In Europe, vertebrates and some invertebrates are protected under animal testing laws.
In the USA, rats, mice, fish, amphibians, and birds are not legally defined as animals under experiment regulations, thus excluded from permissions and statistics.
Mechanism of Animal Testing
Before animals came to be used in toxicity tests, humans were used in feeding experiments to assess the risk of toxicity in American food supply. The first systematic test of this kind was conducted between 1902 to 1904 on behalf of the United States government to test the toxicity of preservatives such as benzoate, borax, and formaldehyde in food products.
Animals are chosen based on similarity of their biological systems to humans.
Animals are assigned to treatment and control groups.
The drug, chemical, or intervention is administered via relevant routes (oral, intravenous, dermal, inhalation, etc.).
Animals are observed for changes in behaviour, physiology, biochemistry, pathology.
Includes measurement of vital signs, blood samples, tissue analysis, organ functions, and sometimes post-mortem examination.
Findings are analysed and used to predict potential human outcomes, though there are limitations in translation due to interspecies differences.
Ethical Considerations in Animal Experimentation
Experiments often cause pain, distress, or death, raising concerns about cruelty.
Consent issue: Animals cannot give informed consent, unlike human subjects.
Legal and cultural variations: Different countries have varying standards of animal protection, raising global ethical concerns.
Animal testing is often ineffective in predicting human toxicity or harm.
Findings from animal studies may not translate accurately to human physiology.
It may lead to death of animals also.
Alternatives available
Advances in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine now enable lab cultivation of: Artificial muscles, pancreas, bladders, cartilage, heart, blood vessels, skin, bone marrow, bone, and trachea.
These artificially generated organs can be used in testing.
Benefits of shifting:
It would be ethical and kind to conduct experiments wherever possible using these rather than using animals.
Conducting experiments on laboratory-grown anatomical parts would also help the development of the nascent field of tissue-engineering or regenerative medicine.
Recommendations
Amend Chapter IV (Experimentation on Animals) of The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 to mandate consideration of lab-grown biological models over live animals.
Scientists, labs, and research organisations should use lab-grown anatomical parts or bioartificial models wherever feasible.
Promote compassion and respect towards animals in society and scientific communities.
Current lab procedures often make animal use inevitable; they need to be restructured to minimise or eliminate animal testing.
Move from live animal models to ex-corpus (outside body) models or artificial biological models.
Collaborate with tissue-engineering organisations to produce artificial biological models.
Use regenerative medicine to replicate biochemistry and biological systems outside the body, creating bioartificial functional models of organs for experimentation.
Mains Practice Question
Discuss the ethical dimensions of animal testing in India. How can advances in tissue engineering help reduce animal suffering in research? (250 words, 15 marks)
Source: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/spare-live-animals-move-to-biological-models/article69847488.ece
Swachh Survekshan Urban 2025: Analysis (GS paper II – Polity and Governance)
Introduction (Context)
Ensuring proper sanitation and hygiene is crucial not only for maintaining good health and preventing diseases but also for upholding human dignity.
While all cultures and religions value cleanliness, many countries have struggled with poor sanitation conditions during different stages of their economic growth.
In India, inadequate sanitation has remained a persistent challenge. To address this, the government launched the Swachh Bharat Mission to improve cleanliness and hygiene across the nation.
Recently government has released the report of Swachh Survekshan 2025, It aims to assess the level of cleanliness, hygiene, and sanitation at urban level.
About Swachh Survekshan 2025
The theme of ‘reduce, reuse, and recycle (RRR)’, advocated by the 2025 survey, carries the prospect of jobs, enterprise, and invigoration of self-help groups.
It is an annual cleanliness survey under Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban).
It is branded as the world’s largest urban cleanliness survey.
Number of participating cities has grown from less than 100 in 2016 to over 4,500 cities now.
It is backed by elaborate assessments, Third-party verification and feedback from 140 million urban residents.
Evaluates data basis on the 10 parameters including waste segregation, collection, transportation, processing, sanitation worker welfare, and grievance redressal.
Helps identify gaps in India’s progress towards cleaner cities.
Enhancements in 2025 data calculation
Swachh Survekshan 2024-25 focused on democratising city cleanliness rankings by expanding population categories from 2 to 5, covering cities from less than 20,000 to over a million population, ensuring fairer competition. Cities were ranked in 5 categories:
Very Small Cities (< 20,000)
Small Cities (20,000 – 50,000)
Medium Cities (50,000 – 3 lakh)
Big Cities (3 – 10 lakh)
Million Plus Cities (> 10 lakh)
Following the ‘One City, One Award’ principle, the top-performing cities from each State were recognized as Promising Swachh Shehars.
Super Swachh League (SSL) was introduced by MoHUA to recognise cities consistently excelling in cleanliness.
The city to be eligible should be ranked in top three in at least two of the last three years.
Assessed on additional indicators to maintain league status.
Categorised into five groups by population size (Very Small, Small, Medium, Big, Million-Plus) for fair comparison.
Aims to create a “premier league” of top-performing cities, motivating them to set higher standards while inspiring others to improve.
Data:
Best Ganga Town: Prayagraj
Best Cantonment Board: Secunderabad Cantonment
Best Saifai Mitra Surakshit Shehar:
GVMC Visakhapatnam
Jabalpur
Gorakhpur
Special Recognition:
State Government of Uttar Pradesh
Prayagraj Mela Adhikari
Prayagraj Municipal Corporation (For exceptional urban waste management during Mahakumbh, attended by an estimated 66 crore people, the world’s largest congregation)
Best Practices Emerging
Indore: Segregation of waste into six categories at source.
Surat: Revenue from selling sewage-treated water.
Pune: Waste management anchored on ragpicker cooperatives.
Visakhapatnam: Created an eco-park from a legacy waste site.
Lucknow: Developed an iconic waste wonder park.
Agra (Kuberpur): Transformed toxic dumpsite into 47 acres of green space using bioremediation and biomining.
Achievements of Swachh Bharat Mission
Reasons for success of Swachh Bharat Mission
Unlike earlier sanitation programmes linked to MGNREGA, SBM funding has been decoupled to avoid delays and improve implementation efficiency.
Specific funds are allocated for Solid and Liquid Waste Management (SLWM), ensuring holistic sanitation outcomes.
Initiatives like Swachh cess and Swachh Bharat Kosh have mobilised additional resources for the mission.
Recognising India’s vast socio-economic, cultural, and linguistic diversity, SBM empowers states to choose strategies, technologies, and implementation models that suit their local needs best.
Through state-level workshops, exposure visits, cross-sharing of best practices, regional/national workshops, reviews, and video conferences, closer collaboration with states has been achieved.
Adoption of tools like geo-tagging has improved monitoring, transparency, and overall sanitation management.
Way Forward
A behaviour change movement fostering intolerance against waste should be initiatied.
Policies should incentivise private sector investment in waste-to-energy and recycling.
Strengthen ULBs’ capacity for decentralised waste management and citizen engagement.
World Bank Recommendations for Sustainable Sanitation
Develop local sanitation champions at the district level through exposure visits and evidence-based advocacy.
Tackle institutional bottlenecks by helping states create state-specific sanitation policies.
Support select districts to demonstrate that district-wide sanitation delivery is achievable and sustainable.
Design approaches tailored to the specific needs and context of each state.
Strengthen the ability of states to scale up successful sanitation models to other districts, aiming for statewide coverage over time.
Conclusion
The business of waste management, though seemingly chaotic, remains possible and replicable, as demonstrated by Surat’s transformation from a garbage city three decades ago to a sanitation leader today. Cleanliness, if institutionalised effectively, can drive urban transformation across India.
Mains Practice Question
Swachh Survekshan has emerged as both a mirror and a motivator for urban cleanliness in India. Critically analyse its effectiveness in driving behavioural, policy, and infrastructural change. (250 words, 15 marks)
Source: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/takeaways-from-the-swachh-survekshan/article69846449.ece